May, V.J. & Hansom, J.D. 2003. Coastal Geomorphology of Great Britain, Geological Conservation Review Series No. 28. JNCC, Peterborough, ISBN 1 86107 4840. The original source material for these web pages has been made available by the JNCC under the Open Government Licence 3.0. Full details in the JNCC Open Data Policy

Tables

(Table 1.1) Number of items in the computerized bibliography of geomorphology of Britain that are classified as 'Coasts' (total 1400), by year of publication.

Year Items
1830–1859 5
1860–1899 15
1900–1909 1
1910–1919 10
1920–1929 24
1930–1939 36
1940–1949 28
1950–1954 68
1955–1959 73
1960–1964 102
1965–1969 86
1970–1974 121
1975–1979 197
1980–1984 229
1985–1989 209
1990–1994 68
1995–1999 102

(Table 1.2) Number of items under selected keywords (some items appear more than once as several keywords are allocated to each).

Beach 284
Erosion 267
Sea level 186
Cliffs 126
Saltmarsh 104
Sand dunes 90
Gravel/Shingle 86
Littoral/Longshore drift 79
Coastal protection 74
Spit 66
Coastal platform 42
Accretion 27
Sediment cell 3

(Table 1.3) Geographical analysis of the British coastal literature, using selected grid squares only.

Grid square Estimated length of coastline Number of publications Coastline length per number of publications
SY (Dorset) 110 km 97 1.13 km
TM (Suffollc/Essex) 120 km 95 1.26 km
SD (Lancashire/S. Cumbria) 150 km 82 1.83 km
SN (Fishguard to Aberdovey) 95 km 35 2.71 km
NJ (south side of Moray Firth) 100 km 22 4.55 km
NZ (Durham/North Yorkshire) 130 km 18 7.22 km
NC (Sutherland) 150 km 9 16.67 km

(Table 1.4) General order of resistance to erosion of British rock types (from Clayton and Shamoon, 1998).

Very Resistant: Precambrian metamorphosed sediments, Cambrian quartzite and sandstone, Ordovician tuff.
Resistant: Old Red Sandstone, Lower Palaeozoic slates, Palaeozoic basalt and andesite.
High Average: Skiddaw slate, Millstone Grit, Carboniferous limestone, Yoredale series.
Low Average: Palaeozoic shale, Coal Measures, Devonian greywackes, Tertiary basalts.
Weak: Magnesian (Permian) limestone, Jurassic limestone, Hastings Beds, Chalk.
Very Weak: Mesozoic and Cainozoic mudrocks, Thanet sand.

(Table 1.5) Morphosedimentological classification of the British coast (based on European Commission (1998 – the CORINE project érosion cotieré).

Morpho-sedimentological type Active (km) Protected* (km) Total (km)
Hard-rock cliffs 7990 7 7997
Soft-rock cliffs 1401 221 1622
Shingle beaches 818 225 1043
Sand beaches 1274 302 1576
Heterogeneous beaches 415 126 541
Beaches for which no data available 59 0 59
Muddy and estuarine coasts 999 484 1483
Totals 12956 1365 14321
Anthropogenic coasts (including harbours, land-claim) 2096
Total 16417
* i.e. modified by coastal defence/protection works. coastal geomorphology unnecessary duplication was avoided.

(Table 1.6) Main features of each GCR Site, broadly following the classification of King, 1978, to show where different features are represented.

Table 1.6 Column headings
1. Large-scale structural control 14. Cliff-foot beaches
2. Small-scale structural control 15. Dunes, including sandplains
3. Cliff forms and processes 16. Spits
4. Exhumed forms: cliffs, benches 17. Barrier beaches
5. Karstic development 18. Cuspate forelands and nesses
6. Shore platforms — structural control 19. Tombolos and tied islands
7. Shore platforms — erosional control 20. Intertidal sediments
8. Beach orientation 21. Mudtlats, ridge and runnel forms
9. Beach undergoing erosion 22. Saltmarsh morphology
10. Prograding beach 23. Machair
11. Beach phases 24. Coastal valleys
12. Pre-existing clasts 25. Inlets and submerged coasts
13. Emerged ('raised') beaches 26. Semi-enclosed bay
  Chapter 3 Hard-rock cliffs 1  2  3  4  5  6  7  8  9  10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26
1 St Kilda Archipelago x x x x                                         x  
2 Villians of Hamnavoc, Shetland x x x x     x               .                   x  
3 Papa Stour, Shetland x x x x     x             x                     x  
4 Foula, Shetland x x x x   x x             x                     x  
5 West Coast of Orkney x x x x   x x             x                     x  
6 Duncansby to Skirza Head, Caithness x x x x   x x           x x                     x  
7 Tarbat Ness, Easter Ross x   x x     x           x x                        
8 Loch Maddy-Sound of Harris coastline     x                                           x x
9 Northern Islay, Argyll and Bute x     x     x           x x                        
10 Butlers of Buchan, Aberdeenshire   x x x     x             x                        
11 Dunbar, East Lothian x x x x   x x           x x                        
12 St Abb's Head, Berwickshire x x x     x x           x x                        
13 Tintagel, Cornwall x   x     x               x                        
14 South Pembroke Cliffs, Pembrokeshire   x x x x                                          
15 Hartland Quay, Devon x x x     x x                                 x    
16 Solfach, Pembrokeshire     x       x                         x       x x  
  Chapter 4 Soft-rock cliffs                                                    
    1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26
17 Ladram Bay, Devon   x x     x               x                        
18 Robin Hood's Bay, Yorkshire x x x     x x   x         x                        
19 Blue Anchor—Watehet—Lilstock, Somerset   x x     x x                                      
20 Nash Point, Glamorgan   x x     x x                                      
21 Lyme Regis to Golden Cap, Dorset   x x           x     x   x                        
22 South-west Isle of Wight x x x     x x x x         x         x         x    
23 Kingsdown to Dover, Kent   x x       x   x         x                        
24 Beachy Head to Seaford Head, East Sussex x x x     x x x x         x                   x    
25 Ballard Down, Dorset x x x       x             x                        
26 Flamborough Hcad, Yorkhsire x x x     x x             x                        
27 Joss Bay (Forencss Point), Kent   x x       x             x                        
28 Porth Neigwl, Gwynedd     x         x x         x                        
29 Holdcmcss, Yorkshire   x x         x x         x                        
  Chapter 6 Gravel and 'shingle' beaches                                                    
    1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26
30 Westward Ho! Cobble Beach, Devon               x x     x       x                    
31 Loe Bar, Cornwall     x       x x x         x   x                    
32 Slapton Sands, Devon               x x         x   x                 x  
33 Hallsands, Devon   x x x     x   x       x                          
34 Budleigh Salterton Beach, Devon     x         x x x   x                            
35 Chesil Beach, Dorset     x       x x x   x x             x              
36 Porlock, Somerset                                                    
37 Hurst Castle Spit, Hampshire               x x x           x       x x x        
38 Pagham Harbour, West Sussex             x x   x           x     x           x  
39 The Ayres of Swinister, Shetland               x               x x   x x         x  
40 Whiteness Head, Moray               x x x     x   x x       x   x        
41 Spey Bay, Moray               x x x x x x   x x       x   x        
42 The West Coast of Jura, Argyll and Butc     x     x x         x x x                        
43 Benacre Ness, Suffolk               x x x x             x                
44 Orfordness and Shingle Street, Suffolk               x x x           x   x                
45 Rye Harbour, East Sussex               x x x         x x x                  
46 Dungeness, Kent               x x x x x       x x x   x            
  Chapter 7 Sandy beaches and coastal dunes                                                    
    1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26
47 Marsden Bay, County Durham   x x       x x     x     x                        
48 South Haven Peninsula, Dorset       x       x x x         x                      
49 Upton and Gwithian Towns, Cornwall   x x x         x         x x                      
50 Braunton Burrows, Devon   x x x     x x x x     x   x x       x            
51 Oxwich Bay, Glamorgan               x x x         x                      
52 Tywyn Abcrffraw, Anglesey     x         x x x         x                      
53 Ainsdale, Lancashire               x x x x       x           x       x  
54 Luce Sands. Dumfries and Galloway               x   x x   x   x         x x x        
55 Sandwood Bay, Sutherland               x x       x   x         x     x      
56 Torrisdale Bay and Invernaver, Sutherland               x x x     x   x         x x x x   x x
57 Dunnet Bay, Caithness               x x   x       x         x            
58 Balta Island, Shetland                 x           x               x      
59 Stratlibeg, Aberdeenshire               x x x x   x   x         x            
60 Forvic, Aberdeenshire               x x x     x   x x       x            
61 Barry Links, Angus               x x   x   x   x     x   x            
62 Tentsmuir, Fife               x x x x       x x       x x          
  Chapter 8 Sand spas and tombolos                                                    
    1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26
63 Pwll-ddu, Glamorgan     x         x   x         . x x                    
64 Ynyslas, Ceredigion               x x x         x x       x   x        
65 East Head, West Sussex               x x x         x x       x            
66 Spurn Head, Yorkshire               x x x         x x       x            
67 Dawlish Warren, Devon   x           x x           x x       x            
68 Gibraltar Point, Lincolnshire               x   x x       x x       x x x        
69 Walney Island. Lancashire     x         x x x       x x x x                  
70 Winterton Ness, Norfolk               x x           x     x                
71 Morfa Barka, Merioncth, Gwynedd               x x x         x x       x x x        
72 Morfa Dyffryn, Merioneth, Gwynedd               x x x   x     x x   x x x            
73 St Ninian's Tombolo, Shetland     x         x   x         x       x x     x   x  
74 Isles of Scilly   x x       x x x x   x   x   x     x x            
75 Central Sanday. Orkney               x x x x       x x     x x x   x   x  
  Chapter 9 Machair                                                    
    1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26
76 Machir Bay, Islay, Argyll and Bute   . .         x x       x   x         x     x      
77 Eoligarry, Barra, Western Isles               x x x         x       x x x x x   x  
78 Ardivacher to Stoncybridge, South Uist               x x           x         x     x   x  
79 Homish and Lingay Strands (GCR name: Machairs Robach and Newton), North Uist               x x x         x x     x x x x x   x  
80 Pabbay, Harris, Western Isles                 x x         x         x     x   x  
81 Luskentyre and Corran Scilebost, Harris               x x           x x   x   x   x x   x  
82 Mangestra, Lewis, Western Isles                 x                     x     x      
83 Traigh nit Berle, Lewis, Western Isles               x x           x         x     x   x  
84 Balnakeil, Sutherland               x x       x   x         x     x   x  
  Chapter 10 Saltmarshes                                                    
    1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26
85 Culbin, Moray               x x x x x x   x x x     x x x        
86 Morrich More, Ross and Cromarty               x x x x   x   x x       x x x        
87 St Osyth Marsh, Essex               x x x x x       x       x x x        
88 Dengic Marsh, Essex               x x x x x       x       x x x        
89 Keyhaven Marsh, Hurst Castle, Hampshire                       x       x       x x x     x  
90 Solway Firth (north shore), Dumfries and Galloway                         x             x x x        
91 Solway Firth: Upper Solway flats and marshes (south shore), Cumbria                         x             x x x     x  
92 Solway Firth: Crec Estuary (Outer Solway Firth), Dumfries and Galloway                         x             x x x     x  
93 Loch Gruinart, Islay                   x     x   x         x x x        
  Chapter 11 Coastal assemblages                                                    
    1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26
  Culbin, Moray — see site number 85                                                    
  Morrich More, Ross and Cromarty — see site number 86                                                    
94 Carmarthen Bay (including GCR site Burry Inlet), Carmarthenshire x x x x   x x x x x x x x             x x x   x x  
95 Newborough Warren, Anglesey   x x       x x x x x       x x       x x x     x  
96 Morfa Dinlle, Gwynedd     x         x x x         x x       x            
97 Holy Island (GCR name: Goswick—Holy Island—Budle Bay, Northumberland x x x x   x x x x x x   x x x x x     x x x        
98 North Norfolk Coast     x       x x x x x     x x x x     x x x        
99 The Dorset Coast: Peveril Point to Furzy Cliff x x x     x x x x     x   x                       x

(Table 1.7) Coastal Annex I habitats occurring in the UK (from McLeod et al., 2002.)

EU code Habitat name Lay name Priority habitat/ UK special

species responsibility
1130 Estuaries Estuaries x
1140 Mudflats and sandflats

not covered by seawater at low tide

 Intertidal mudflats and sandflats
1150 Coastal lagoons Lagoons x x
1160 Large shallow inlets and bays Shallow inlets and bays x
1170 Reefs Reefs x
1210 Annual vegetation of drift lines Annual vegetation of drift lines
1220 Perennial vegetation of stony banks Coastal shingle vegetation outside the reach of waves x
1230 Vegetated sea cliffs of the Atlantic and Baltic coasts Vegetated sea cliffs x
1310 Salicornia and other annuals colonizing mud and sand Glasswort and other annuals colonizing mud and sand
1320 Spartina swards (Spartinion maritimae) Cord-grass swards
1330 Atlantic salt meadows (Glauco- Puccinellietalia maritimae) Atlantic salt meadows
1420 Mediterranean and thermo-Atlantic halophilous scrubs (Sarcocornetea fruticosi) Mediterranean saltmarsh scrub
2110 Embryonic shifting dunes Shifting dunes
2120 Shifting dunes along the shoreline with Ammophila arenaria ('white dunes') Shifting dunes with marram
2130 Fixed dunes with herbaceous vegetation ('grey dunes') Dune grassland x x
2140 Decalcified fixed dunes with Empetrum nigrum Lime-deficient dune heathland with crowberry
2150 Atlantic decalcified fixed dunes (Calluno-Ulicetea) Coastal dune heathland x
2160 Dunes with Hippophae rhamnoides Dunes with sea-buckthorn
2170 Dunes with Salix repens ssp. argentea (Salicion arenariae) Dunes with creeping willow
2190 Humid dune slacks Humid dune slacks x
21A0 Machairs Machair x
2250 Coastal dunes with Juniperus spp. Dunes with juniper thickets x
8330 Submerged or partially submerged sea caves Sea caves x

(Table 2.1) Likely recession rates in different materials (compiled by Carter, 1988, from data in Sunamura, 1983).

Lithology Recession rate (m a−1)
Granite 10−3
Limestone 10−3 to 10−2
Shales and flysch 10–2
Chalk 10−1 to 1
Tertiary sedimentary 10−1 to 1
Quaternary sedimentary 1 to 10
Recent volcanic rocks 10 to 102

(Table 2.2) Primary, secondary and tertiary controls on cliff form (based on May, 1997a).

FIRST ORDER SECOND ORDER THIRD ORDER
Geological structure and lithology Weathering and transport slope processes Coastal land-use Resource extraction
Wave climate Slope hydrology Coastal management
Subaerial climate Vegetation
Water-level change (sea level and tide) Cliff-foot erosion
Geomorphology of the hinterland (landforms into which the cliffs are cut) Cliff-foot sediment accumulation
Resistance of cliff-foot sediment to attrition and transport

(Table 2.2) Primary, secondary and tertiary controls on cliff form (based on May, 1997a).

FIRST ORDER SECOND ORDER THIRD ORDER
Geological structure and lithology Weathering and transport slope processes Coastal land-use Resource extraction
Wave climate Slope hydrology Coastal management
Subaerial climate Vegetation
Water-level change (sea level and tide) Cliff-foot erosion
Geomorphology of the hinterland (landforms into which the cliffs are cut) Cliff-foot sediment accumulation
Resistance of cliff-foot sediment to attrition and transport

(Table 2.3) Candidate and possible Special Areas of Conservation in Great Britain supporting Habitats Directive Annex I habitat 'Vegetated sea cliffs of the Atlantic and Baltic coasts' and/or 'Submerged or partially submerged sea caves' as qualifying European features. Non-significant occurrences of these habitats on SACs selected for other features are not included. (Source: JNCC International Designations Database, November 2002.)

SAC name Local authority Cliff habitat extent (ha)
Ardmeanach Argyll and Bute 125.9
Beast Cliff–Whitby (Robin Hood's Bay) North Yorkshire 156.1
Berwickshire and North Northumberland Coast Northumberland; Scottish Borders †
Buchan Ness to Collieston Aberdeenshire 62.2
Cape Wrath Highland 299.6
Cardigan Bay/ Bae Ceredigion Ceredigion; Penfro/ Pembrokeshire †
Clogwyni Pen Llŷn/ Seacliffs of Lleyn Gwynedd 65
Dee Estuary/ Aber Dyfrdwy* Cheshire; Fflint/ Flintshire; Wirral 1
Durham Coast Durham 120.4
East Caithness Cliffs Highland 310
Exmoor Heaths Devon; Somerset 85.6
Fair Isle Shetland Islands 129
Flamborough Head East Riding of Yorkshire; North Yorkshire 315.6
Glac na Criche Argyll and Bute 50
Glannau Ynys Gybi/ Holy Island Coast Ynys Môn/ Isle of Anglesey 111.1
Great Orme's Head/ Pen y Gogarth Conroy 13.9
Hastings Cliffs East Sussex 55.1
Hoy Orkney Islands 94.9
Isle of Portland to Studland Cliffs Dorset 579
Isle of Wight Downs Isle of Wight 18.4
Limestone Coast of South West Wales/Arfordir Calchfaen de Orllewin Cymru Abertawe/ Swansea; Penfro/ Pembrokeshire 349.5
Lundy Devon †
Mousa Shetland Islands †
Mull of Galloway Dumfries and Galloway 137.6
North Rona Western Isles/ Na h-Eileanan an lar 31.4
Overstrand Cliffs Norfolk 28
Papa Stour Shetland Islands †
Pembrokeshire Marine/ Sir Benfro Forol Penfro/ Pembrokeshire †
Pen Llŷn a'r Sarnau/ Lleyn Peninsula and the Sarnau Ceredigion; Gwynedd; Powys †
Polruan to Polperro Cornwall 192
Rigg-Bile Highland 450.8
Rum Highland 216.7
Sidmouth to West Bay Devon; Dorset 807.5
South Devon Shore Dock Devon 238.7
South Hams Devon; Torbay 3.8
South Wight Maritime Isle of Wight 198.6
St Abb's Head to Fast Castle Scottish Borders 122.4
St Albans Head to Durlston Head Dorset 28.7
St David's/ Tŷ Ddewi Penfro/ Pembrokeshire 303.9
St Kilda Western Isles / Na h-Eileanan an lar 738.8
Strathy Point Highland 169.3
Stromness Heaths and Coast Orkney Islands 63.5
Thanet Coast Kent †
The Lizard Cornwall 149.8
Tintagel–Marsland–Clovelly Coast Cornwall; Devon 1457.9
Y Fenai a Bae Conwy/ Menai Strait and Conwy Bay Conwy; Gwynedd; Ynys Mon/ Isle of Anglesey †
* Possible SAC not yet submitted to EC.

† SAC proposed for sea caves; sea cliffs not a qualifying feature.

Bold type indicates a coastal geomorphological GCR interest within the site.

(Table 3.1) Hard-rock cliff GCR sites, including those sites described in other chapters of the present volume that include hard-rock cliffs in the assemblage.

Site* Main features Main geological materials Tidal range (m)
St Kilda Archipelago. Western Isles Plunging cliffs, submerged caves and platforms; structural controls Igneous complex of granophyres, basalts and dolerites 3.0
Villians of Hamnavoe, Shetland Structural controls, wave stripping, cliff-top boulder beaches Devonian extrusive andesites and ignimbrites 1.5
Papa Stour, Shetland Diversity of cliff forms, caves, stacks, arches; inherited cliffs Devonian extrusive rhyolite and ignimbrite 1.5
Foula, Shetland Higher cliffs, shore platforms, geos; exhumed cliffs stacks and geos Devonian sandstones and Dalradian metamorphic rocks 1.5
West Coast of Orkney Structural control of steep over- hanging cliffs; stacks arches; inherited cliffs; young individual features Devonian Old Red Sandstone 3.0
Duncansby to Skirza Head, Caithness Geos and stacks, shore platforms, blowhole Devonian Old Red Sandstone 3.0
Tarbat Ness, Easter Ross Weathering forms: tafoni and solution pits Fault-controlled Devonian Old Red Sandstone 3.2
Loch Maddy–Sound of Harris coastline Drowned surface of glacial erosion; rock basins, skerries and platform Lewisian gneiss, faulted and crushed zones 3.5
Northern Islay, Argyll and Bute Emerged shore platform and beach gravels Precambrian quartzites and tillites; Dalradian Limestone 2.0
Bullers of Buchan, Aberdeenshire Geos, caves, arches. stacks, platform, blowhole Granite and dyke intrusions 3.5
Dunbar, East Lothian Four shore platforms, some of which are glaciated Devonian Old Red Sandstone, Carboniferous sandstone, igneous intrusions 4.5
St Abb's Head, Berwickshire Steep cliffs, geos, fault-controlled inlets and headlands Devonian extrusive felsites, tuffs, and grits; faulting 4.5
Tintagel, Cornwall Longitudinal coast, structural control caves, arches, slope-over- wall cliff Upper Devonian slates, siliceous sandstones, pillow lavas, tuffs and phyllites 6.5
South Pembroke cliffs Structural controls, eroded karstic coast, stack, arch, cave, geo Carboniferous limestones 6.0
Hartland Quay, Devon Truncated valleys, waterfalls, slope-over-wall cliffs, shore platforms Carboniferous interbedded fine-grained sandstones and shales 6.4
Solfach, Pembrokeshire Ria, infilled ria Cambrian and Ordovician flags and dolerites 5.9
Carmarthen Bay, Carmarthenshire Ria, shore platforms Old Red Sandstone and Carboniferous limestone 8.0
Furzy Cliff—Peveril Point, Dorset Structural controls, longitudinal coast, slope-over-wall cliffs, truncated valleys Portlandian and

Purbeckian limestones and sandstones

 1.9
Holy Island, Northumberland Structural controls, shore platforms Carboniferous sandstones and limestones 4.1
Upton and Gwithian Towans, Cornwall Exhumed cliffs and stacks Devonian slates 5.8
Hallsands, Devon Emerged shore platform Mica-schist and quartz- schist 4.4
*Sites described in the present chapter are in bold typeface

(Table 3.2). Altitude and orientation of some cliff-top boulder deposits in Shetland (after Hansom et al., in press).

Location Altitude (m) Coastal orientation (degrees) Mean orientation of boulder long axis (degrees) Number of boulders Mean long axis (m)
Virda Field, Papa Stour 35 5 300 15 0.7
South Head, Villians of Hamnavoe 25 0 315 25 1.1
Grind of the Navir 1 (beach ridge) 19 0 314 20 1.2
Grind of the Navir 2 (boulder clusters) 20 0 290 25 0.7
Esha Ness 35 20 275 15 1.0

(Table 4.1) The main features of soft-rock cliff coastal geomorphology GCR sites, including coastal geomorphology GCR sites described in other chapters of the present volume that contain soft-rock cliffs in the assemblage. Sites described in the present chapter are in bold typeface.

Site Main features Other features Mean rate of cliff-top retreat (m a−1) Tidal range (m)
Budlcigh Salterton Cliff erosion feeding Budleigh Salterton Pebble Beds into local and regional beaches Shingle beach (see Chapter 6) 0.30 4.0
Ladram Bay Cliff—stack—platform development in Triassic sandstone and mudstone 0.20 3.7
Robin Hood's Bay Cliffs in till resting on Liassic shales. Till/platform junction Platform across Liassic shales 0.03 4.8
Blue Anchor–Watchet–Lilstock Rapid retreat in Liassic shales with very unusual 'washboard' topography in macro-tidal environment Platform development Up to 1.20 9.4
Nash Point Rapid cliff retreat in Liassic shales. Cave development Platform development 0.2–0.10 6.0
Lyme Regis to Golden Cap Intensively researched landslide and related beach coast Major mass-movements 0.60–0.96 3.5
Peveril Point to Furry Cliff Rapidly eroding cliffs in range of materials from Chalk to Oxford Clay. Longitudinal coast Semi-enclosed beaches. Submarine rock reefs. Landslides) 0.00–0.41 1.7 (east)–2.0 (west)
South-west Isle of Wight Differential erosion in materials from Chalk to Wealden. Contrasts between relict and modern beaches. Stacks. Chines Major mass-movements 0.20–2.10 3.3 (east)–2.2 (west)
Kingsdown to Dover Cliff and beach development in high (over 30 m) cliffs. Recent beach depletion Flow failures 0.20–0.60 5.9
Beachy Head to Seaford Cliffs of variable height in Upper Chalk. Narrow platforms. Locally limited sediment supply. Recent beach depletion 0.40–1.26 5.3

.
Ballard Down Classic cave—arch—stack site in Upper Chalk. Transverse coast Pocket beach formation 0.01–0.60 1.7
Marsden Bay Cliffs and stacks Beach phases 4.2
Flamborough Head Highly complex chalk cliffs overlain by Devensian till. Caves and stacks Extensive platforms 0.30–0.90 4.0
Joss Bay Cliff and platform development in Upper Chalk 0.30 4.0
Carmarthen Bay Both hard-rock cliffs and easily eroded cliffs Major dunes, sand-spits and barrier beaches, rias, emerged beaches, intertidal sandflats, saltmarsh 8.0
North Norfolk Coast Rapidly eroding cliffs in chalk and till, latter feeding regional sediment budget Major spits, beaches and

saltmarsh (see

Chapter 11)

 0.30–0.42 4.7 (E)–6.4 (W)
Benacre Ness Rapidly eroding till cliffs resulting from longshore movements of ness and subsequent reduction of natural protection Shingle ness (see Chapter 6) 0.42–0.96 2.1
Porth Neigwl Rapidly retreating glacial drift cliffs, chines, beach cusps Contemporary beach cementation (see Campbell and Bowen, 1989) Up to 1.00 3.9
Walney Island Till cliffs, rapid erosion Barrier islands, recurved spits 9.0
Holderness Rapidly eroding cliffs, mainly in till Till shore platform, ords, thin beach Up to 2.22 4.0

(Table 4.2) Rates of cliff-top retreat of soft-cliffed coasts (from various sources).

Cliff-top retreat (m a−1) Rock type Location Period (years)
0.01 Upper Chalk North Ballard Down 100
0.01 Upper Chalk East Ballard Down 100
0.03 Bracklesham Beds Highcliffe Castle 92
0.07 Upper Chalk Kingsdown–St Margaret's Bay 84
0.07 Upper Chalk Thanet 85
0.09 Middle/Lower Chalk Dover to Folkestone 90
0.16 Upper Chalk Cuckmere to Seaford 120

_
0.18 Chalk Hambury Tout to White Note 98
0.19 Upper/Middle Chalk St Margaret's Bay 84
0.27 Hamstead Beds North-west Isle of Wight 95
0.28 Glacial drift North Yorkshire 72
0.29 Glacial drift Holderness 100
0.37 Jurassic clays Furry Cliff–Shortlake 98
0.39 Kimmeridge clays and shales Kimmeridge 100
0.41 Upper Chalk Newhaven–Rottingdean 89
0.41 Wealden South-west Isle of Wight 125
0.41 Kimmeridge clays Ringstead 99
0.42 Glacial drift Weybourne–Cromer 100
0.57 Glacial drift Gorleston–Corton 100
0.57 Glacial drift Holderness 100
0.58 Barton Clay Barton 62
0.68 London Clay Reculver 79
0.83 Glacial drift Gratby-Caister 100
0.85 Glacial drift Holdemess 100
0.88 London Clay, crag and glacial drift The Naze 100
0.96 London Clay Northern Isle of Sheppey 79
0.96 Glacial drift Cromer–Mundesley 100
1.05 Glacial drift Pakefield–Kessingland 100
1.06 Chalk Beachy Head 90
1.08 Sandstone Cliffend 75
1.11 Glacial drift Holdemess 100
1.19 Hastings Beds sandstones Ecclesbourne Glen 75
1.20 Glacial drift Holderness 100
1.22 Chalk Birling Gap 120
1.26 Chalk Seaford Head 120
1.43 Hastings Beds clays Fairlight Glen 75
1.75 Glacial drift Holderness 100
1.96 Glacial drift Holderness 100
2.22 Glacial drift Holderness 100
3.00 Glacial drift Covehithe 100

(Table 4.3) North Yorkshire coast cliff retreat rates in m a−1 (based on Agar, 1960).

Cliff top Cliff foot
Whole coast 0.02 0.05
Headlands only 0.01 0.04
Bays only 0.04 0.07
Robin Hood's Bay Lower Lias 0.02 between 0.07 and 0.16
Glacial drift 0.31 between 0.05 and 0.31

(Table 4.4) Land-loss by natural sections of the Holdemess coast, 1852–1952 (Valentin, 1954, 1971).

Section Annual cliff recession (m) Shore length (m) Annual land-loss (m2) Average cliff height (m) Annual loss in volume (m3)
A. Sewerby to Earl's Dike 0.29 8100 2357 11.0 25 927
B. Earl's Dike to Hornsea 1.10 13 650 15 015 11.8 177 177
C. Hornsea to Withernsea 1.12 24 250 27 160 16.2 439 992
D. Withernsea to Kilnsea Warren 1.75 15 525 27 200 13.2 359 040
Entire coast (approx.) 1.20 61 500 72 000 14.0 1 000 000

(Table 5.1) Classification of beach structures based on their plan form (after Pethick, 1984); outline definitions are provided in the glossary of the present volume.

Rhythmic beach morphology Cusps
Crescentic bars
Cell circulation topography
Shoreline beaches Pocket beaches — swash-aligned (Davies, 1980)
Open beaches — drift-aligned (Davies, 1980)
Zeta-form or fish-hook beaches (Sllvester, 1960; Swift, 1976)
Combined swash and drift alignment
Detached beaches Spits
Cuspate forelands, nesses and tombolos
Barrier beaches and islands

(Table 6.1) Main features and sediment sources of gravel/shingle beach and ness GCR sites, including coastal geomorphology GCR sites described in other chapters of the present volume that contain shingle beach/ness structures in the assemblage.

Site* Main features Other geomorphological features Present day natural sources of sediment Tidal range (m)
Marsden Bay Beach phases Cliff, stack Local cliff erosion — small 4.2
Furry Cliff to Peveril Point (Dorset Coast) Shingle pocket beaches Cliffs/platforms Mass movements Cliff erosion — small, restricted 1.7 (E)–2.0 (W)
Nash Point Cobble and shingle pocket beaches Platforms, caves Local cliff/platform erosion — small 6.0
Kingsdown to Dover Cliff-foot beach Cliffs and platforms Cliff erosion — small 5.9
Seven Sisters, (Beachy Head to Seaford Head) Cliff-foot fringing beaches Cliffs and platforms Cliff/platform erosion — small 6.0
South-west Isle of Wight Cliff-foot beach and feeder cliffs Cliffs Chalk and sandstones — small 3.3 (E)–2.2 (W)
Lyme Regis to Golden Cap Shingle beach sediment supply and budget Feeder cliffs Significant inputs of flint/chert 3.5
Ynyslas Sand and shingle spit Dunes Reworking till — restricted 4.0
Westward Ho! Cobble beach and spit Dunes Reworking of emerged beach — restricted 7.9
Loe Bar Shingle bay-bar Cliffs, ria Local cliff erosion — small 4.7
Slapton Sands and Hallsands Shingle bay-bar Beach destruction Emerged beach, relict cliff and platform Minimal 4.4
Budleigh Salterton Shingle beach and spit

Major former feeder to south coast beaches

 Soft cliffs Cliff erosion — maintains budget 4.0
Chesil Beach Barrier beach Tombolo Minimal — local 2.0
Porlock Retreating shingle barrier with both swash-aligned and drift-aligned longshore sections Recent breached tidal inlet allowing active back-barrier saltmarsh development Minor source of gravel from updrift coastal slides. Main solifluction source of sediment now exhausted until future sea-level rise creates new supply 9.3
Hurst Castle Spit Shingle spit and recurves Saltmarsh Possible from offshore 2.2
St Osyth Marsh Cheniers Saltmarsh Localized reworking of gravels and chenier root 3.8
Dengie Marsh Cheniers Saltmarsh Localized reworking of gravels and chenier root 3.8
Blakeney Point (North Norfolk Coast) Major shingle spit North Norfolk coast assemblage Cliff erosion — restricted

Longshore transport — large

 6.4 (W)–4.7 (E)
Scolt Head Island (North Norfolk Coast) Barrier beach and spits North Norfolk coast assemblage Longshore transport — large 6.5
Pagham Harbour Double spit development Local cliffs — restricted Kelp rafting 3.4
Ayres of Swinister Complex of bay bars and spits Local tills — small 1.5
Rye Bay Spit developments Shingle beach plain Reworking proximal

end

Longshore — minimal

 5.8
Benacre Ness Shingle ness Rapidly retreating cliffs Cliff erosion — maintains input 2.1
Whiteness Head Spit Longshore transport — large 3.5
Spey Bay Spits, bay bars, emerged gravel ridges Longshore — now partially restricted fluvial input 3.5
West Coast of Jura Over 11 000 year sequence of emerged gravel ridges Emerged shore platforms Local, between headlands 2.5
Orfordness and Shingle Street Major shingle ness and spit Longshore — restricted by groyne fields 1.9 (N)–3.4 (S)
Dungeness ridges Major cuspate foreland

Relict barrier beach Over 5000 year sequence of beach

 Re-distribution within site 6.2
* Sites described in the present chapter are in bold typeface

(Table 6.2) Candidate and possible Special Areas of Conservation in Great Britain supporting Habitats Directive Annex I habitat 'Perennial vegetation of stony banks' and/or Annual vegetation of drift lines' as qualifying European features. Non-significant occurrences of these habitats on SACS selected for other features are not included. (Source: JNCC International Designations Database, July 2002.)

SAC name Local authority Gravel/ shingle habitat extent (ha)
Bae Cemlyn/ Cemlyn Bay Ynys Mon/ Isle of Anglesey 1.3
Chesil Beach and the Fleet Dorset 96.2
Culbin Bar Highland; Moray 122.5
Dee Estuary/ Aber Dyfrdwy* Cheshire; Fflint/ Flintshire; Wirral 1
Dungeness East Sussex; Kent 2266.1
Isle of Portland to Studland Cliffs Dorset 1.4
Lower River Spey–Spey Bay Moray 65.2
Minsmere to Walberswick Heaths and Marshes Suffolk 8.8
Morecambe Bay Cumbria; Lancashire 57.5
North Norfolk Coast Norfolk 98.4
North Uist Machair Western Isles / Na h-Eileanan an lar 3
Orfordness-Shingle Street Suffolk 553.3
Sidmouth to West Bay Devon; Dorset 4.4
Solent Maritime City of Portsmouth; City of Southampton; Hampshire; Isle of Wight; West Sussex 226.5
Solway Firth Cumbria; Dumfries and Galloway 8
South Uist Machair Western Isles / Na h-Eileanan an lar †
* Possible SAC not yet submitted to EC

† Feature is minor component of SAC

Bold type indicates a coastal geomorphology GCR interest within the site

(Table 6.3) Westerly extension of the active gravel beach (West Spey Bay). (From Gemmell et al., 2001b.)

Time period Westerly growth (m) Growth per annum (m a−1)
1870–1903 1360 41
1903–1967 2090 33
1967–1994 720 27
July 1994–December 1995 30 20
1870–1995 4200 34

(Table 6.4) Development phases at Dungeness. Ridge height data are mainly from Lewis and Balchin (1940).

Phase Preserved as Shingle ridge height (m OD
1 Low barrier beach associated with Midley Sands, stretching from Fairlight to St Mary's Bay and thence to Hythe. Dating uncertain but placed between 5500 and 4000 years BP by Eddison (1983a) (i) Broomhill and Sandylands Max = +1.5
(ii) Recurves at St Mary's Bay Max = +1.0
(iii) Low-level shingle at West Hythe +0.6 to −1.0
2 Higher level barrier system, dated c. 3000 years BP Overlain in parts by peat dated c. 2700 years BP (i) Shingle ridges at Jury's Gap and the Wicks, and Beach Bank Soil Series west and north of Lydd Average = +4.11 Max = +5.00
(ii) Shingle recurves at Hythe +2.8 to +3.5
3 Slightly higher beaches, younger than peat. Dated c. 2000 years BP (i) Holmstone Beach and its extensions as Beach Bank Soil Series west of Lydd Average = +4.31
(ii) Recurves at Hythe No published data
4 (a) Ness development with eastern shore trending south-east—north-west to Lydd (i) Wickmaryholm eastwards to Muddymore Pit Average (west of Galloways) = +4.69

Average (east of Galloways)

=+3.81
(b) Barrier beach with spit and recurve development to north and south (i) New Romney No published data
(ii) Recurves at Hythe No published data
5 (a) Ness development with long NW- trending ridges. Eastern limit dated at about 750 AD. (i) Areas south and west of Open Pits Max = +6.28
(ii) Beach Bank series in Denge Marsh
(b) Land-claim (i) Areas mainly around Lydd within embankments
(ii) Open Pits
6 Spit extension and recurves (i) Open Pits
7 (a) Ness and beach plain to distal recurves (i) Denge Beach to Northlade (by c. 1250 AD) +4.5 to +6.0 Average = +5.33
(ii) Greatstone Point (by c. 1800 AD)
(b) Dune development (i) Romney Warren
(ii) Camber
(c) Spit development (i) Littlestone Point
(ii) Broomhill Farm, Hythe
(d) Land claim (i) West of Lydd
(ii) Caldecot—Belgar area
(iii) Romney Hoy
(e) Beach ridges associated with longshore drift (i) Camber and Rye Harbour
(ii) Romney Hoy: Littlestone and Greatstone Points
(iii) Hythe Ranges
8 (a) Modern sea-wall construction (i) Dymchurch Wall is earliest example
(b) Beach-feeding (i) Broomhill,
(ii) Pett
(iii) Power Station
(iv) St Mary's Bay

(Table 7.1) Main features and present-day sediment sources of dune types. Exemplar sites described in the present chapter are in bold typeface. See also Table 7.2. (Based on Ranwell, 1972.)

Type Sediment sources Geomorphological setting Wind directions Exemplar GCR sites
Foreshore dunes
Spit dunes Intertidal banks and longshore On promontories at estuary mouths with near-parallel or radiating ridges and slacks More common with onshore prevailing and dominant, but not restricted to this Forvie, Strathbeg, South Haven Penin-sula, Moth Harlech, Holy Island (Goswick and the Snook), Culbin, Morrich More
Prograding ness dunes Accretion at ness, possibly with longshore sediment supply from opposite directions alongshore On open coast Prevailing and dominant winds from opposite directions (offshore/ onshore) Winterton Ness, Barry Links, Tentsmuir
Offshore island dunes Offshore, longshore and intertidal drying banks Offshore or barrier islands narrow, subject to washover, often display time- series development in main direction of longshore transport Can occur with both onshore and offshore prevailing winds Scolt Head Island, Blakeney Point recurves (North Norfolk Coast), Pembrey (Carmarthen Bay), Culbin, Morrich More
Hindshore dunes
Bay dunes Restricted in longshore direction Usually at bay head on indented coasts Prevailing onshore Dunnet Bay, Luce Sands, Upton and — Gwithian Towans, Tywyn Aberffraw, Oxwich Bay Sandwood, Balta Island, Torrisdale Bay and Invernaver
Hindshore dune system Offshore and intertidal Extensive sandy coasts Prevailing and dominant winds from the same direction Braunton Burrows, Newborough Warren, Ainsdale, Holy Island (Ross Links)
Hindshore sand plains Offshore, intertidal and beach Bay-head and low- lying rocky coasts High wind-speeds that restrict vertical development Tywyn Aberffraw

(Table 7.2) Main features, sediment sources, tidal ranges of sandy beach and dune GCR sites, including coastal geomorphology GCR sites described in other chapters of the present volume that contain dune features in the assemblage. It should be noted that all of the machair sites in Chapter 9 have dune features (see Table 9.1). Sites described in the present chapter are in bold typeface.

Site Main features Other features Present-day sediment sources
Marsden Bay Beach phases Cliffs and stacks Local cliff erosion — small 4.2
South Haven Peninsula Shore-parallel dune ridges, originating from the 16th century, slacks, sand-spit Relict and active cliffs., caves, rock platform Longshore — restricted Offshore — significant 1.5
Upton and Gwithian Towans Climbing dunes, exhumed bedrock base Stacks Offshore — restricted 5.8
Braunton Burrows Large dune field, parabolic dunes, slacks Ridge and runnel Intertidal and estuarine 7.3
Oxwich Bay Bay-head beach and dunes Cliffs and emerged platform Offshore — limited 8.2
Tywyn Aberffraw Sand plain, isolated parabolic dunes shore- parallel linear dunes Offshore, probably in deficit 4.7
Ainsdlale Large dune field, slacks, ridge and runnel, long dated history Offshore — limited — in deficit 8.3
Luce Sands Bay-head dunes Holocene emerged gravel ridges Onshore and longshore — significant 5.6
Sandwood Bay Dynamic beach-dune complex, climbing dunes Gravel-cored bar, blowouts Offshore and recycled — limited 4.2
Dunnet Bay Bay-head dunes and sand plain Blowouts Offshore — limited 4.0
Baba Island Climbing dunes Beach-dune-grassland continuum Local — limited 1.9
Strathbeg Shore-parallel dune ridges, large blowouts Holocene emerged gravel ridges Longshore — restricted, loch outlet source 3.3
Forvie Shore-parallel dune ridges, originally moved as waves northwards Longshore — cycled from estuary 3.1
Barry Links Foreland sand plain, linear parabolic dunes Estuarine, longshore — limited 4.4
Tentsmuir Shore-parallel dune ridges-intertidal sands Estuarine and longshore — significant 4.4
Torrisdale and Invernaver Beach-dune, hill-top dunes, glaciofluvial terraces Archaeological context Offshore and fluvial recycled — now limited 4.0
Morrich More Shore-parallel beaches and dunes: sandplain Holocene beaches and cliffs Offshore — restricted 4.3
Culbin Shore-parallel dunes, large dune field now stabilized by forest Holocene emerged gravel ridges and spits Longshore -restricted, offshore — limited 3.6
East Head Small spit-based dunes Intertidal 3.4
Holy Island Dune field, spits, barrier beach Cliffs, Holocene saltmarsh, intertidal mudflats Longshore, offshore — significant 4.1
Dawlish Warren Parallel spit-based linear dunes Recurved spit Intertidal and possibly estuarine In deficit 4.1
North Norfolk Coast Major mainly linear dunes Spits, barrier beach Longshore and offshore 6A-4.7
Morfa Harlech Linear shore-parallel dunes Longshore — restricted, estuarine 4.5
Morfa Dyffryn Linear shore-parallel dunes, blowouts, dunes invading slacks Longshore — restricted, offshore 4.3
Winterton Ness Linear dunes on cuspate foreland Longshore 2.6
Ynyslas Spit-based dunes Longshore — restricted, estuarine 4.3
Carmarthen Bay
Pendine Shore-parallel linear dunes Offshore, estuarine to distal end 8.0
Pembrey Large dune field, spit-based linear dunes Offshore and estuarine 8.0
Whitford spit Estuary-mouth spit Longshore, drying intertidal 8.0
Laugharne Burrows Cliff-top dunes Local redistribution, drying intertidal 8.0
Newborough Warren and Morfa Dinlle Major dune field, parabolic and linear dunes, spit, tied island and slacks Saltmarsh Offshore and estuarine 4.7

(Table 7.3) Calcium carbonate content of upper beach/foredune in selected coastal geomorphology GCR sites. Sites described in the present chapter are in bold typeface. (Based in part on Goudie, 1990, and various sources cited by Ritchie and Mather, 1984.)

Dune location CaCO3

(%)

 Median

grain size

(Phi)
Culbin 0.0 2.0
South Haven Peninsula 0.015 ?
Lossiemouth 0.26 2.0
Tentsmuir 0.4 2.5
Luce Sands 0.5 2.4
Forvie 0.55 1.9
Buddon Ness (Barry Links) 1.0 2.0
Walney Island 1.51 2.21
Morfa Dyffryn 3.34 2.31
Ainsdale 3.57 2.13
Invernaver 3.8 1.9
Morfa Harlech 3.96 2.13
Newborough Warren 4.56 2.50
Ynyslas 4.98 2.29
Strathbeg 7.86 2.0
Rattray (Strathbeg site) 9.10 1.9
Laugharne (Pendine)* 11.15 2.40
Morrich More 12.0 2.4
Pembrey* 12.04 2.33
Oxwich Bay 12.45 1.93
Tywyn Aberffraw 13.20 2.47
Llangennith* 15.65 1.63
Braunton Burrows 19.59 2.13
Dunnet Bay 20.4 1.7
Dunbar 20.4 1.5
Westward Ho! 21.79 2.45
Machir, Islay 33.6 2.2
Mangersta, Lewis 38 1.4
Luskentyre, Harris 44 2.0
Tràigh na Berie, Lewis 47 2.4
St. Ninian's Tombolo, Shetland 47.5 2.0
Balnakiel 52.0 1.8
Hayle (Upton and Gwithian Towans) 56.80 1.56
Loch Gruinart, Islay 59.0 2.1
Eoligarry, Barra 80.0 2.0
Ardivachar, South Uist 84.0 1.7
Balta Island, Shetland 95.5 1.8
*Camarthen Bay

(Table 7.4) Variations in calcium carbonate content and pH in foredunes and main dunes. (Based on Salisbury, 1952; and Willis, 1985)

Location Calcium carbonate content of dunes pH
Foredunes Main dunes Foredunes Main dunes
South Haven Peninsula 0.015 0.01 7.0 3.6
Southport (near Ainsdale) 6.0 0.2 8.2 5.5
Braunton Burrows 20.0 8.5 9.05 8.2
Blakeney Point, North Norfolk Coast 0.6 0.02 7.3 4.2

(Table 7.5) Candidate and possible Special Areas of Conservation in Great Britain supporting Habitats Directive Annex I coastal dune habitat(s) (other than machair) as qualifying European features. Non-significant occurrences of these habitats on SACs selected for other features are not included. (Source: JNCC International Designations Database, July 2002.)

SAC name Local authority Dune habitat extent (ha)
Barry Links Angus 447.6
Braunton Burrows Devon 767.5
Carmarthen Bay Dunes/Twyni Bae Caerfyrddin Abertawe/ Swansea; Caerfyrddin/ Carmarthenshire 780.2
Coll Machair Argyll and Bute 409.0
Culbin Bar Highland; Moray 612.9
Dawlish Warren Devon 28.2
Dee Estuary/ Aber Dyfrdwy* Cheshire; Fflint/ Flintshire; Wirral 4.0
Dornoch Firth and Morrich More Highland 974.4
Dorset Heaths (Purbeck and Wareham) and Studland Dunes Dorset 95.9
Drigg Coast Cumbria 519.8
Durness Highland 386.7
Humber Estuary* City of Kingston upon Hull; East Riding of Yorkshire; Lincolnshire; North East Lincolnshire; North Lincolnshire 529.0
Invernaver Highland 54.2
Kenfig/ Cynffig Pen-y-bont ar Ogwr/ Bridgend 673.8
Limestone Coast of South West Wales/ Arfordir Calchfaen de Orllewin Cymru Abertawe/ Swansea; Penfro/ Pembrokeshire 397.1
Monach Islands Western Isles / Na h-Eileanan an lar 215.1
Morecambe Bay Cumbria; Lancashire 220.5
Morfa Harlech a Morfa Dyffryn Gwynedd 228.6
North Norfolk Coast Norfolk 387.3
North Northumberland Dunes Northumberland 1078.6
North Uist Machair Western Isles / Na h-Eileanan an lar 963.3
Oldshoremore and Sandwood Highland 165.3
Penhale Dunes Cornwall 422.4
Saltfleetby-Theddlethorpe Dunes and Gibraltar Point Lincolnshire 265.6
Sands of Forvie Aberdeenshire 469.7
Sandwich Bay Kent 258.3
Sefton Coast Sefton 1072.7
Solent Maritime City of Portsmouth; City of Southampton; Hampshire; Isle of Wight; West Sussex 113.2
Solway Firth Cumbria; Dumfries and Galloway 32.6
South Uist Machair Western Isles / Na h-Eileanan an lar 545.7
Tiree Machair Argyll and Bute 237.4
Torrs Warren-Luce Sands Dumfries and Galloway 819.5
Winterton-Horsey Dunes Norfolk 44.7
Y Twyni o Abermenai i Aberffraw/ Abermenai to Aberffraw Dunes Gwynedd; Ynys Mon/ Isle of Anglesey 672.3
* Possible SAC not yet submitted to EC. Bold type indicates a coastal GCR interest within the site.

(Table 8.1) The main features of sediment sources and tidal ranges of sand spit GCR sites, including coastal geomorphology GCR sites described in other chapters of the present volume that contain important sand spit structures in the assemblage of features. Many machair sites have small sandspits — see Chapter 9. (Sites described in the present chapter are in bold typeface )

Site Main features Other features Present-day natural sources of sediment Tidal range (m)
Pwll-ddu Sand spits Local fluvial and shallow nearshore 8.2
Ynyslas Sand spit Dunes Estuarine, longshore (reduced) 4.1
East Head Sand spit, distal dunes Restricted alongshore: mainly from offshore banks 3.4
Spurn Head Major spit in macro- tidal environment Dunes Longshore and offshore 6.4
Dawlish Warren Sub-parallel double spit Dunes Intertidal banks 4.1
Gibraltar Point Series of spits, effects of extreme events Dunes Longshore and offshore banks 7.0
Walney Island Barrier islands recurved spits Till cliffs Cliff erosion 9.0
Winterton Ness Linear dunes on cuspate foreland Longshore 2.6
Morfa Harlech Spits and recurves, ridge and runnel Dunes Longshore limited, intertidal estuarine banks 4.5
Morfa Dyffryn Tombolo and dunes, sam Dunes Longshore limited, offshore possible but unconfirmed 4.3
St Ninian's Tombolo Tombolo Dunes, climbing dunes Nearshore and some local reworking 1.1
Isles of Scilly Tied islands, spits Emerged beach Local feeder cliffs and platforms 5.5
Central Sanday Tombolos, spits, sandflats, dunes Gravel ridges, machair, dunes Local reworking and nearshore machair 3.0
Eoligarry Emerged tombolo Sand dunes and machair, bowthroughs Local and offshore, biogenic sources from the east 4.0
Culbin Bluckie Lock spit Emerged gravel strand- plain, dunes, saltmarsh Nearshore and erosional recycling 3.6
Morrich More Innis Mhór sand spit Emerged strandplain, dunes, saltmarsh Fluvial, glaciogenic and offshore 4.3
Tentsmuir Shore-parallel dune ridges, ness Sand dunes, intertidal sands Estuarine and longshore, significant 4.4
Luskentyre–Corran Seilebost Sand spit Sand dunes and machair Nearshore, intertidal to the east 3.8
Forvie Shore-parallel dune ridges, spit Unvegetated and parabolic dunes Longshore and recycled from estuary 3.1
Torrisdale Bay Dune landforms, climbing dunes Sandspits, intertidal sandflats, saltmarsh Fluvial and offshore, limited 4.0
Holy Island Barrier beaches, spits Emerged beach, dunes Longshore and offshore 4.1
Scolt Head Island, North Norfolk Barrier beach, recurved spits Dunes Longshore and offshore 5.6
Newborough Warren Spits, modem and relict Dunes Intertidal estuarine banks offshore, local reworking 4.7
Carmarthen Bay Spits Dunes, cliffs Fluvial/estuarine, offshore and intertidal banks, local reworking 8.0
Braunton Burrows Distal estuarine shore-parallel spit Dunes Fluvial/estuarine, offshore and intertidal banks, local reworking 7.3

(Table 8.2) Area of East Head — historical data from 1846 to 1996

Date Area (ha) Data source
1846 8.9 Tithe map: property 541
1875 5.3 OS Area 83
1898 6.5 OS Area 310
1911 2.3 OS Areas 310 and 310a
1933 17.5 OS Areas 309a, 310 and 310a
1975 30.7 Searle (1975)
1996 c. 40 May (1997b)

(Table 9.1) Machair GCR sites

Machair site Main features Other features Tidal range (m)
Machir bay Beach–dune–machair, high-level machair terraces, emerged beaches Climbing dunes 3.0
Eoligarry Vigorous erosional machair forms large blowouts, tombolo structure Storm beach, wide intertidal, sheltered beach, archaeological dating 4.0
Ardivachar–Stoneybridge Machair type site, high and low machair deflation corridors Archaeological dating gravel barrier, palaeosols ' 3.6
Hornish and Lingay Strands Flat, low-lying machair, water-table effects Superimposed small dunes, artificial drainage 3.9
Pabbay Climbing machair, conical dunes, wet machair No rabbits 3.0
Luskentyre–Seilebost Large beach-dune machair remnant of former larger system, 35m high dunes; growth/decay model site Spits, blowouts 3.8
Mangersta Eroded and deflated formerly extensive machair, advanced stage of erosion Water table 3.8
Tràigh na Berie Large dynamic beach–dune–machair dune cordon intact and well-nourished Infill of valleys and lochs, no chronic erosion 3.8
Balnakeil Dynamic climbing machair and dune blowouts, headland by-passing of sediment Erosion of frontal edge, sand-fall over cliff 4.0

(Table 9.2) Candidate Special Areas of Conservation supporting Habitats Directive Annex I habitat 'Machair' as a qualifying European feature. (Source: JNCC International Designations Database, July 2002.)

SAC name Local authority Machair extent

(ha)
Coll Machair Argyll and Bute 681
Monach Islands Western Isles / Na h-Eileanan an Iar 292
North Uist Machair Western Isles / Na h-Eileanan an Iar 1707
Sheigra–Oldshoremore Highland 222
South Uist Machair Western Isles / Na h-Eileanan an Iar 1785
Tiree Machair Argyll and Bute 510
Bold type indicates a coastal GCR interest within the site

(Table 10.1) Candidate and possible Special Areas of Conservation in Great Britain supporting Habitats Directive Annex I coastal saltmarsh habitat(s) as qualifying European features. Non-significant occurrences of these habitats on SACs selected for other features are not included. (Source: JNCC International Designations Database, July 2002.)

SAC name Local authority Saltmarsh extent (ha)
Alde, Ore and Butley Estuaries Suffolk 390
Carmarthen Bay and Estuaries/ Bae Caerfyrddin ac Aberoedd Abertawe/ Swansea; Caerfyrddin/

Carmarthenshire; Penfro/ Pembrokeshire

 2764
Chesil and the Fleet Dorset 21
Culbin Bar Highland; Moray 203
Dee Estuary/ Aber Dyfrdwy* Cheshire; Fflint/ Flintshire; Wirral 2431
Dornoch Firth and Morrich More Highland 539
Drigg Coast Cumbria 162
Essex Estuaries Essex 3770
Fal and Helford Cornwall 70
Glannau Môn (Cors heli)/Anglesey Coast (Saltmarsh) Ynys Môn/ Isle of Anglesey 191
Humber Estuary* City of Kingston upon Hull; East Riding of Yorkshire; Lincolnshire; North East Lincolnshire; North Lincolnshire 840
Kenfig/ Cynffig Pen-y-bont ar Ogwr/ Bridgend 20
Mòine Mhór Argyll and Bute 94
Morecambe Bay Cumbria; Lancashire 1897
North Norfolk Coast Norfolk 19
North Uist Machair Western Isles / Na h-Eileanan an lar 82
Pembrokeshire Marine/ Sir Benfro Forol Penfro/ Pembrokeshire 274
Pen Llŷn a'r Sarnau/Lleyn Peninsula and the Sarnau Ceredigion; Gwynedd; Powys 748
Plymouth Sound and Estuaries Cornwall; Devon; Plymouth 192
Severn Estuary/ Môr Hafren* Bro Morgannwg/Vale of Glamorgan; Caerdydd/ Cardiff; Casnewydd/Newport; City of Bristol; Fynwy/ Monmouthshire; Gloucestershire; North Somerset; Somerset; South Gloucestershire 656
Solent Maritime City of Portsmouth; City of Southampton; Hampshire; Isle of Wight; West Sussex 2276
Solway Firth Cumbria; Dumfries and Galloway 4171
The Wash and North Norfolk Coast Lincolnshire; Norfolk 3341
* Possible SAC not yet submitted to EC.

Bold type indicates a coastal GCR interest within the site

(Table 10.2) Characteristic geomorphological features of some of the main Solway Firth saltmarshes.

Rockcliffe Burgh Moricambe Bay Caerlaverock Cree
Type Fringing estuary Fringing estuary Fringing estuary, bay Fringing estuary, transitional Fringing estuary, bay
Marsh-edge morphology Low cliffs and terraces Low cliffs and terraces, locally ramped Low cliffs and terraces, locally ramped Low cliffs and terraces, rarely ramped Ramped, locally cliffs and terraces
Creek system Dendritic Modified dendritic Dendritic Dendritic Dendritic
Saltpans Common Common Common Infrequent Common
Age of active marsh >200 years Unknown Unknown Pre-mid 19th century Unknown
Mean sediment type
Upper marsh Sandy silt Sand:fine sand /silt: clay Sand:fine sand/silt: clay Sand:silt:clay Fine sand
Marsh edge Sandy silt Sandy silt Sandy silt Fine sand Fine sand
Upper tidal flat silt Sand to sandy Sand to silty sand Silty sand Fine sand Sand and gravel

(Table 10.3) Estimated areal accretion in hectares between 1864 and 1946, 1946 and 1973, 1973 and 1993 for selected inner Solway saltmarshes. (Based on data from Marshall, 1962; Rowe, 1978 and Pye and French, 1993.) All areas in ha. Caerlaverock Marsh is in the Solway Firth (north shore) GCR site.

Marsh 1864 1946 1993 1894–1964 1946–19731 1946–19932
Rockcliffe 664 709 565 +45 +414 −144
Burgh 688 534 524 −154 −82 −10
Skinburness 445 506 n/a +61 +100 n/a
Caerlaverock 194 607 563 +413 −93 −44
1 Rowe (1978)
2 Pye and French (1993)

(Table 11.1) Main geomorphological features of the 'Coastal Assemblage' GCR sites.

Site Main geomorphological features Tidal range (m)
Culbin Extensive dune system with dunes up to 30m high; parabolic dunes; emerged gravel strandplain and spits; sandy spits; gravel spits; extensive intertidal sandflats and saltmarshes; westerly shift. 3.6
Morrich More Emerged sandy coastal strandplain with interdigitated saltmarsh and sandy beaches on either flank; offshore sandy islands and spit; large parabolic dune system; 1 km width intertidal sandflats in Dornoch Firth. 3.4
Carmarthen Bay Major dunes; sand-spits and barrier beaches; hard-rock and easily eroded cliffs; rias; emerged beaches; extensive intertidal sandflats; and saltmarshes. 8.0

_
Newborough Warren and Morfa Din& Major dunes (linear and parabolic); Holocene dunes; gravel spits; hard-rock and easily eroded cliffs; extensive intertidal sandflats; estuary; saltmarshes. 4.2
Holy Island Barrier beaches; spits; emerged beach; longshore and offshore sediment sources (Huddart and Glasser, 2002) 4.1
North Norfolk Coast Scolt Head Island, a major barrier island; Blakeney Point, a large shingle spit; intertidal flats; beaches; dunes; saltmarshes; cliffs. One of the few areas on the coastline of England and Wales where saltmarsh morphology, including saltpans, has been examined in detail. 6.4 (west) to 4.7 (east)
The Dorset Coast: Peveril Point to Furry Cliff Differential erosion to a longitudinal coastline; includes such classic landforms as Lulworth Cove. Hard-rock and soft-rock cliffs; platforms; landslides; pocket beaches; chines; submerged rock barriers. 1.7 (east) to 2.0 (west)

(Table 11.2) CORINE categories, data for the Carmarthen Bay, North Norfolk Coast, Purbeck (Dorset Coast) and Newborough Warren/Morfa Dinlle GCR sites; measurements are in km.

CORINE categories Carmarthen Bay North Norfolk Purbeck Newborough Warren and Morfa Dinlle
(A) Hard-rock cliffs (with fringing beaches) 10 0 7 4
(B) Soft rock cliffs (with fringing beaches) 1(1) 2(1) 21(4) 1
(C) Pocket beaches 1 0 3 0
(D) Coarse elastic beaches 2 3 0 1
(E) Sandy beaches 9 13 0 5
(G) Foreshores: fine sediments 4 11 11 1
(H) Estuary 2 1 1 1
(J) Port/harbour zone 3 0 0 0
(L) Embankment 0 1 1 1
(I) Mixed beaches 0 2 2 0
Mean segment length (km) 2.25 1.47 1.42 2.30
Total segments 32 35 31 14

(Table 11.3) Summary of saltmarsh development in north Norfolk

Time Development
7500 years ago First signs of marine incursion at c. −7 m OD
Until 5500 years ago Sediments accumulate as sea level rises
Between 5500 and 4500 years ago Peats within saltmarsh muds and silts imply stability or perhaps fall in sea level
About 4000 years ago Barrier features at Scolt Head and Blakeney probably in place (Allison, 1989)
About 3000 years ago Coastline at Holkham is 3km north of its present position
About 2000 years ago Romano-British remains indicate inner marshes at Brancaster and Burnham
Last few hundred years Outer marshes develop at Scolt Head Island, Blakeney and at Warham
Since 1900 Open coast marshes grow rapidly with Spartina colonization between Wells and Stiffkey
Since 1950 New marshes at western Scolt, Thornham, Morston, western Blakeney. Dune ridges transgressing onto marsh at Brancaster

(Table 11.4) Rates of cliff-top retreat since c. 1900 on the Dorset Coast.

Mean annual rate (m a−1) Rock type Location of retreat
0.01 Portland Stone Durlston Head to Winspit
0.18 Chalk Hambury Tout to White Nothe
0.22 Chalk Worbarrow Bay
0.25 Purbeck Beds Durlston Bay
0.37 Jurassic clays Furzy Cliff to Shortlake
0.38 Wealden Worbarrow Bay
0.39 Kimmeridge clays and shales Kimmeridge
0.41 Kimmeridge clays Ringstead
0.43 Kimmeridge clays Chapman's Pool
0.50 Wealden Lulworth Cove