Figures

(Figure 1.1) Outcrop map illustrating the distribution of Lower Carboniferous (Dinantian and early Namurian) rocks in Britain. Note that in most areas the position of the Mid-Carboniferous boundary, close to the base of the Chokierian Stage, remains ill-defined and falls within the limits of the Namurian outcrop area. In southwest England, for similar reasons, this boundary falls within the limits of the Silesian outcrop area. Based on various sources and including information from [British] Geological Survey maps of the area (mainly Institute of Geological Sciences, 1979a,b).

(Figure 1.2) Lower Carboniferous chronostratigraphy — the Heerlen Classification. After Metcalfe (1997).

(Figure 1.3) The main structural elements controlling the palaeogeography of Britain during Early Carboniferous times. Note the distribution of the Tweed Basin, Solway Basin and Northumberland Basin which together constitute the Northumberland Trough area as considered in Chapter 3 of this volume. Based, in part, on Johnson (1984), Gawthorpe et al. (1989), Ebdon et al. (1990), Fraser and Gawthorpe (1990), Armstrong and Purnell (1993) and Corfield et al. (1996).

(Figure 1.4) Chronostratigraphical and biostratigraphical classification schemes for the Lower Carboniferous Subsystem. After Riley (1993, fig. 1) with additional information for the Pendleian and Arnsbergian stages supplied by the same author. Absolute age data from Guion et al. (2000) based mainly on information by Lippolt et al. (1984), Hess and Lippolt (1986), Leeder and McMahon (1988) and Claoue-Long et al. (1995). Ammonoid abbreviations used in this figure: N. — Nuculoceras; Ct. — Cravenoceratoides; E. — Eumorphoceras; C. — Cravenoceras; T. — Tumulites; Lyrog. — Lyrogoniatites; Neoglyph. — Neoglyphioceras; Lusit. — Lusitanoceras; Parag. — Paraglyphioceras; Arnsb. — Arnsbergites; G. — Goniatites; B. — Bollandoceras. Conodont abbreviations used: Gn. — Gnathodus; Gn. collinsoni — Gnathodus girtyi collinsoni; L. mono. — Lochriea mononodosa; L. — Lochriea; horn. — Gnathodus homopunctatus; prae. — Mestognathus praebeckmanni; and,. — Scaliognathus anchoralis; bis. — Polygnathus bischoffi; bur. — Eotaphrus burlingtonensis; lat. — Doliognathus latus; bout. — Dollymae. bouckaerti; bul. — Eotaphrus bultyncki; has. — Dollymae bassi; siph. — Siphonodella; Ps. — Pseudopolygnathus; in. — Polygnathus inornatus; spit. — Polygnathus spicatus. Stipple ornament shows interzones (conodonts and miospores) or non-sequences (brachiopods).

(Figure 2.1) Geological map of the Midland Valley Basin showing the distribution of Lower Carboniferous outcrops, sedimentary basins and the location of GCR sites described in the text. Based on information from [British] Geological Survey maps of the area (principally Institute of Geological Sciences, 1979a).

(Figure 2.2) Simplified Lower Carboniferous stratigraphical chart for the Midland Valley of Scotland. Note that below the Brigantian Stage, the position of stage boundaries is uncertain and that below the NM miospore zone only recorded zones are indicated. (H — Hurlet Limestone; TH — Top Hosie Limestone; I — Index Limestone; C — Castlecary Limestone.) The Bathgate Group comprises the Salsburgh Volcanic Formation, the Bathgate Hills Volcanic Formation and the Kinghorn Volcanic Formation. Based on various sources and including information from Whyte (1981), Chisholm et al. (1989) and Browne et al. (1996, 1999).

(Figure 2.3) Lower Carboniferous palaeogeographical reconstructions of the Midland Valley area: (a) late Tournaisian (Ballagan Formation, Inverclyde Group); (b) Asbian (Sandy Craig Formation, Strathclyde Group); (c) late Brigantian (Lower Limestone Formation, Clackmannan Group); (d) Pendleian (Limestone Coal Formation, Clackmannan Group). Based on various sources and including information from Craig (1991) and Whyte (1994).

(Figure 2.4) Correlation of the principal marine horizons in the Brigantian Lower Limestone Formation and uppermost part of the Strathclyde Group in the Midland Valley from North Ayrshire to Dunbar. Note that most of the named units figured here are, unless otherwise stated, limestones (names abbreviated). Based on various sources and including information from George et al. (1976), Cameron and Stephenson (1985), Wilson (1989) and Francis (1991).

(Figure 2.5) Simplified stratigraphy of the Limestone Coal Formation and Upper Limestone Formation of the Midland Valley (as typified by the Kincardine Basin succession) showing the position of the principal marine horizons. Based on Ramsbottom et al. (1978) and Cameron and Stephenson (1985). maximum subsidence (Read and Merriam,

(Figure 2.6) Geological map illustrating the distribution of Lower Carboniferous rocks at the Cove GCR site. Based on Craig and Duff (1975) and Andrews and Nabi (1994).

(Figure 2.7) Outcrops of the lower part of the Cove Harbour Member (Aberlady Formation) east of Cove Harbour. The topmost beds of the underlying Heathery Heugh Sandstone Member (Gullane Formation) can be seen in the near cliffs to the right. The large block (lower centre) is approximately 0.8 m long. (Photo: M.A. Whyte.)

(Figure 2.8) Simplified sedimentary log of the lower part of the Lower Limestone Formation (Brigantian) at the Barns Ness Coast GCR site. Based on various sources and including information from Davies et al. (1986).

(Figure 2.9) Palaeokarst solution hollow infilled by clay on the top surface of the Longcraig Middle Limestone at the Barns Ness Coast GCR site. Above this a thin coal and shale is developed beneath the base of the overlying Longcraig Upper Limestone. Note the 10 cm scale bar. (Photo: M.A. Whyte.)

(Figure 2.10) General view of the Craigduff Dome, a symmetrical fold structure in interbedded sandstones and mudstones of the Strathclyde Group at the East Sands–Buddo Ness GCR site, east of St Andrews. (Photo: British Geological Survey, No. D560, reproduced with the permission of the Director, British Geological Survey, NERC, all rights reserved (IPR/19–39C).)

(Figure 2.11) Limestone IX of the Randerston Limestones (Anstruther Formation, Strathclyde Group) showing the development of stromatolites from a large overturned oncoid. Note the 10 cm scale bar, divided into 1 cm intervals. (Photo: M.A. Whyte.)

(Figure 2.12) Simplified geological map of the foreshore area at the Elie–Anstruther GCR site showing the outcrop distribution of formations in the Strathclyde Group and Clackmannan Group. Based on various sources and including information from MacGregor (1968, 1996) and Forsyth and Chisholm (1977).

(Figure 2.13) Dolomitization of the St Monance White Limestone (Pathhead Formation, Strathclyde Group, Brigantian) close to St Monance, at the Elie–Anstruther GCR site, showing zone of dolomitization (darker band) between two paler developments of thinly bedded limestone with shale partings. (Photo: C. MacFadyen.)

(Figure 2.14) Simplified sedimentary log of the upper part of the Kinghorn Volcanic Formation and of the Lower Limestone Formation at the Kinghorn GCR site with intrusive igneous rocks omitted. After Francis (1961).

(Figure 2.15) Exposure of the top of the Kinghorn Volcanic Formation (foreground) and overlying beds of the Lower Limestone Formation in the foreshore at the Kinghorn GCR site with the Second Abden Limestone in the middle distance. (Photo: British Geological Survey, No. D5227, reproduced with the permission of the Director, British Geological Survey, © NERC, all rights reserved (1PR/19–39C).)

(Figure 2.16) Exposure of the Charlestown Main Limestone (Lower Limestone Formation, Upper Brigantian) at the Invertiel Quarry GCR site. (Photo: C. MacFadyen.)

(Figure 2.17) View of Bishop Hill from the north showing the prominent gully of Kinnesswood Row in which the Kinnesswood Formation (Inverclyde Group, Tournaisian) and Pathhead Formation (Strathclyde Group, Brigantian) are exposed. (Photo: M.A. Whyte.)

(Figure 2.18) General view of the upper Brigantian Lower Limestone Formation (Clackmannan Group) at the Roscobie Quarry GCR site illustrating massive lenticular limestone units of a carbonate buildup within the Charlestown Main Limestone (base of cliff face) overlain by shales and sandstones (middle and top of cliff face). (Photo: C. MacFadyen.)

(Figure 2.19) Stromatolitic algal domes in the Bogwood Limestone, West Lothian Oil-Shale Formation (Strathclyde Group, Asbian) at the Queensferry Shore GCR site. (Photo: M.A. Whyte.)

(Figure 2.20) Simplified stratigraphical log of the Upper Limestone Formation (Clackmannan Group) succession at the Joppa Shore GCR site. Based on various sources and including information from Mitchell et al. (1960).

(Figure 2.21) Simplified geological map of the Bilston Bum GCR site showing the outcrop distribution of the principal marine intervals and lithostratigraphical units in formations of the Clackmannan Group. After Macconachie in Flett et al. (1927).

(Figure 2.22) Simplified stratigraphical log of the Lower Limestone Formation and Limestone Coal Formation (Clackmannan Group) at the Skolie Bum GCR site.

(Figure 2.23) Schematic north-south cross-section showing facies distributions in the Petershill Limestone (upper Brigantian) at the Petershill GCR site, Bathgate. After Jameson (1987).

(Figure 2.24) Representative sections of (a) the Kinnesswood Formation and (b) the Ballagan Formation of the Inverclyde Group at the Gargunnock Burn GCR site. Based on information in Belt et al. (1967) and Francis et al. (1970).

(Figure 2.25) Comparative sections of strata at the Touchadam and Todholes GCR sites showing the correlation of the principal lithostratigraphical units. Note that the sections at Todholes are each approximately 100 m apart and some 3 km to the south of Touchadam. Based on various sources and including information from Francis et al. (1970).

(Figure 2.26) General view of the quarry at Touchadam, where the Murrayshall (Hurlet) Limestone (Lower Limestone Formation, Brigantian) was formerly worked. (Photo: M.A. Whyte.)

(Figure 2.27) General view of the Bannock Burn at the Todholes GCR site showing outcrops of Lawmuir Formation (Brigantian) including Bannock Limestone F and underlying beds. (Photo: M.A. Whyte.)

(Figure 2.28) Simplified geological map illustrating the distribution of Lower Carboniferous rocks at the Corrie Burn GCR site. Based on various sources and including information from Bassett (1958), Bowes (in Lawson and Weedon, 1992) and British Geological Survey (1992).

(Figure 2.29) General view of the Inverclyde Group (Tournaisian) section at the Ballagan Glen GCR site showing alternating beds of the Ballagan Formation (mainly cementstones and mudstones and a few sandstone bands) overlain at the top of the cliff by the Clyde Sandstone Formation. A prominent fault (top centre-right to bottom centre-left) downthrows to the left. (Photo: C. MacFadyen.)

(Figure 2.30) Photomicrograph of ostracode valves, shell debris and fish remains in the lower part of the Blackhall Limestone (Lower Limestone Formation, Clackmannan Group, Brigantian). The horizontal field of view is approximately 0.4 mm. (Photo: M.A. Whyte.)

(Figure 2.31) Representative sections of the Upper Limestone Formation (Arnsbergian, Clackmannan Group) from the Waulkmill Glen and Rouken Glen GCR sites. After Carruthers and Anderson (1908).

(Figure 2.32) Shale containing Lingula from the base of the Limestone Coal Formation (Clackmannan Group, Pendleian) overlying the Top Hosie Limestone. The specimen is approximately 6 cm across. (Photo: M.A. Whyte.)

(Figure 2.33) Simplified stratigraphy of the Strathclyde Group and Clackmannan Group succession at Paduff Burn. Based on various sources.

(Figure 2.34) Irregular wedge-shaped base of the White Post at the top of the Dockra Limestone (Lower Limestone Formation, Brigantian) at the Paduff Bum GCR site. (Photo: C. MacFadyen.)

(Figure 2.35) Solitary corals in the Dockra Limestone (Lower Limestone Formation, Brigantian) from the Trearne Quarry GCR site. (Photo: C. MacFadyen.)

(Figure 2.36) Schematic south–north cross-section showing facies distributions in the Dockra Limestone (Lower Limestone Formation, Brigantian) at the Trearne Quarry GCR site, Bathgate. After information principally from Shiells and Penn (1971).

(Figure 2.37) Waterfall section of the Upper Linn (Calmy) Limestone (Upper Limestone Formation, Clackmannan Group, Arnsbergian) at Linn Spout, near Dairy. (Photo: C. MacFadyen.)

(Figure 2.38) Simplified sedimentary log of the Lower Carboniferous succession at the Conic Shore GCR site.

(Figure 2.39) Folded beds and entrance to old workings in the Corrie Limestone (Brigantian, Lower Limestone Formation, Clackmannan Group) at the Conic Shore GCR site. (Photo: R. Kanaris-Sotiriou.)

(Figure 2.40) Tournaisian miospores from the Ballagan Formation (Inverclyde Group) at Bracken Bay. A — Knoxisporites pristinus (x 710); B — Auroraspora macra (x 820); C — Grandispora echinata (x 810). Reproduced from Sullivan (1968) by kind permission of the Palaeontological Association.

(Figure 2.41) Generalized sedimentary log of the Lower Carboniferous succession in the Kennox Water area. After Lumsden (1964, 1967a,b, 1971).

(Figure 3.1) Geological map of northern England illustrating the distribution of Carboniferous outcrops in the Northumberland Trough and the locations of GCR sites described in the text. Details of the geology south of the Maryport–Stublick–Ninety Fathom Fault System and in the Southern Uplands area are omitted. After Johnson et al. (1995), and including information from Ord et al. (1988), Leeder (1992) and Chadwick et al. (1993a,b, 1995). Note that the position of the Maryport Fault is extrapolated from the subsurface.

(Figure 3.2) Simplified palaeogeography of northern England and southern Scotland illustrating the distribution of Lower Carboniferous sedimentary basins. Note the positions of the Tweed Basin, Northumberland Basin and Solway Basin, which together constitute the Northumberland Trough area. Based on Johnson (1984) and Armstrong and Purnell (1993).

(Figure 3.3) Simplified Lower Carboniferous stratigraphical chart of the Northumberland Trough. Compilation based on information from Lumsden et al. (1967), Day (1970), George et al. (1976), Ramsbottom et al. (1978), Frost and Holliday (1980), Armstrong and Purnell (1987), Smith and Holliday (1991), Purnell (1992), British Geological Survey (1993a), Turner et al. (1993), Chadwick et al. (1995), Johnson et al. (1995) and Maguire et al. (1996). Note that the implied correlations between the lithostratigraphy and both the biostratigraphy and the chronostratigraphy remains uncertain in many areas. SL — Syringothyris Limestone Member; TS — Thirlstane Sandstone Member; BL — Bogside Limestone Member; MAI — Main Algal 1 Member; LA — Lower Antiquatonia Member; HA — Hillend Algal Member; Naworth BB — Naworth Bryozoa Band; NL — Naworth Limestone; PD — Plashetts Dun Limestone; PC — Piper's Cross Limestone; SB — Spirifer Band; WL — Watchlaw Limestone; Lst — Limestone; SSt — Sandstone; Mbr — Member; Fm — Formation. Conodont zones from Armstrong and Purnell (1987) and Purnell (1989, 1992). Not to scale.

(Figure 3.4) Lithostratigraphical terminology for the Lower Border Group in the Bewcastle area. The position of MA 14 (Main Algal 14 Member) immediately below the Lower Antiquatonia Member is omitted for clarity. After Purnell (1992).

(Figure 3.5) Stratigraphy of the Upper Liddesdale Group (Brigantian, D₂) limestones from the Alston Block to the Northumberland Basin and the Tweed Basin. (GNB — Girvanella Nodular Bed; URB — Upper Redhouse Burn.) After Frost and Holiday (1980).

(Figure 3.6) Correlation of lower Stainmore Group successions (Pendleian, E₁–Arnsbergian, E₂) between the Kincardine Basin, the Northumberland Basin and the Alston Block. After Ramsbottom et al. (1978).

(Figure 3.7) (a) Geological map and (b) simplified sedimentary log of the Lower Carboniferous succession at the Kirkbean GCR site, using the lithostratigraphical nomenclature of the British Geological Survey (1993a). (a) After Craig (1956); (b) courtesy of K. Maguire.

(Figure 3.8) Diplocraterion yoyo from interbedded marine shelf beds (laminated siltstones and bioturbated sandstones) of the Arbigland Limestone Formation at the Kirkbean GCR site. (Photo: P.J. Cossey.)

(Figure 3.9) Schematic representation of Dinantian depositional environments along the northern margin of the Solway Firth and palaeogeographical setting of the Kirkbean succession (area within rectangular outline, lower right). The length of the east–west section is approximately 40 km. Note that the Kirkbean sequence was deposited in a tectonically stable area away from the North Solway Fault, hence the absence of alluvial-fan breccias at the Kirkbean GCR site. After Maguire et al. (1996).

(Figure 3.10) Sedimentary log of the Lynebank Formation (Lower Border Group) at Ellery Sike. After Leeder (1974b).

(Figure 3.11) Stained acetate peel of tentaculitoid microconchid ('vermetid gastropod' or 'serpulid') boundstone from the lower part of the Lynebank Formation at Ellery Sike. Note the framework of encrusting spar-filled microconchid tubes and the spaces between the organic framework filled with micritic sediment. An arrow symbol indicates the sedimentary 'way up' of the specimen. Sample obtained from the thin limestone immediately below the Ellery Sike Limestone Member illustrated in (Figure 3.10). Scale bar = 1 cm. (Photo: M.A. Purnell.)

(Figure 3.12) Sedimentary log of the Main Algal 1 Member of the Main Algal Formation (Lower Border Group) at Birky Cleugh.

(Figure 3.13) 'Algal' encrusted orthoconic nautiloid from the Main Algal Formation (Lower Border Group) at Birky Cleugh. The specimen is oriented as found in the field, but the microbial laminae indicate that the orientation of the nautiloid varied during encrustation. The long axis of the section through the nautiloid is 6 cm. (Photo: M.A. Purnell.)

(Figure 3.14) Sedimentary log of the Cambeck Formation (Lower Border Group) at Whitberry Burn extending from the Barron's Pike Sandstone Member to the Hillend Algal Member.

(Figure 3.15) Simplified geological map of the Oakshaw Ford GCR site illustrating the respective positions of the principal lithostratigraphical marker horizons either side of the Middle Border Group-Upper Border Group boundary as referred to in the text (OC — Oakshaw Coal; CB — Clattering Band). Based on information on [British] Geological Survey maps of the Bewcastle district (Institute of Geological Sciences, 1969a,b).

(Figure 3.16) Summary log of the succession at Redesdale Ironstone Quarry. Compilation based on information from Hemingway (1972) and Frost and Holliday (1980), and on information supplied by D. Frost (pers. comm., 1979). The lower part of this succession was poorly exposed at the time of writing.

(Figure 3.17) The upper part of the succession at Redesdale Ironstone Quarry showing the prominent development of sandstones between the top of the Redesdale Ironstone Shale (bottom) and the overlying Redesdale Limestone (top). (Photo: P.J. Cossey.)

(Figure 3.18) Section of the Upper Liddesdale Group (Brigantian) succession in Tipalt Burn. After information in Johnson (1959). Limestone names follow the nomenclature used by Day (1970) and Frost and Holliday (1980), while the names in parentheses are those used by Trotter and Hollingworth (1932) and Johnson (1959). See text for discussion of the problems associated with the naming and correlation of these limestone marker beds.

(Figure 3.19) Sedimentary log of the Great Limestone (Pendleian) succession in Brunton Bank Quarry illustrating the position of key biostromar developments referred to in the text. Compilation based on information in Johnson (1958), Fairbairn (1980) and Frost and Holliday (1980).

(Figure 3.20) Outcrop of the Chaetetes Band — a sponge bioherm at the base of the Great Limestone in Brunton Bank Quarry (Photo: British Geological Survey, No. L1551, reproduced with the permission of the Director, British Geological Survey, © NERC, all rights reserved (IPR/19–39C).)

(Figure 3.21) Laminar sheets of C. depressus separated by irregular bands of dolomitized sediment associated with geopetal fabrics, from the Chaetetes biostrome at Brunton Bank Quarry. Negative print of stained acetate peel (x 3.9). (Photo: P.J. Cossey.)

(Figure 3.22) General view of the Great Limestone succession at Greenleighton Quarry. Note the lower of two thin mudstones within the limestone sequence that separates the lower 'Main Posts' from the overlying 'Tumbler Beds'. See text for further details. (Photo: P.J. Cossey.)

(Figure 3.23) Section of the Lower Namurian (Pendleian) Great Limestone succession at Greenleighton Quarry. An asterisk marks the position of a horizon of limestone nodules that Johnson et al. (1962) regarded as the most likely source of the basal E_1a goniatite marker Cravenoceras leion found in the tips nearby. Based on Johnson et al. (1962) and Fairbairn (1980).

(Figure 3.24) Exposure of fine-grained bioclastic limestones close to the base of the Corbridge Limestone at Corbridge Limestone Quarry (Photo: P.J. Cossey.)

(Figure 3.25) Interbedded fluvial sandstones (below hammer) and flash-flood conglomerates of the Roddam Dene Conglomerate — an alluvial-fan deposit of possible Courceyan age from the Roddam Dene GCR site near Wooler, Northumberland. (Photo: B. Turner.)

(Figure 3.26) Thin-bedded 'algal' (oncoidal) limestones of the Glebe Limestone Member (Cementstone Group) at Glebe Quarry, Rothbury, Northumberland. (Photo: P.J. Cossey.)

(Figure 3.27) Stained acetate peel illustrating the development of sub-spherical oncoids in the Glebe Limestone Member. Scale bar = 1 cm. (Photo: M.A. Purnell.)

(Figure 3.28) (a) Part of the outcrop face at Bowden Doors illustrating the facies distribution within the Fell Sandstone Group and the position of mass-emplaced channel margins. (b) Cross-section of a prominent channel which cuts down 2.5 m through the underlying facies. (c) The channel fill is mostly structureless, but faint diffuse marginal laminations are evident on the left side of the channel. The lower part of the channel intersects with a zone of overturned cross-stratification. After Turner and Monro (1987). (Photos: B. Turner.)

(Figure 3.29) The Lower Carboniferous geology of the Burnmouth GCR site. (a) Simplified geological map after Smith (1967). (b) Detailed geological map, and (c) sedimentary log, after Scrutton and Turner (1995).

(Figure 3.30) (a) Simplified geological map and (b) section of Lower Carboniferous Lower Limestone Group to Middle Limestone Group strata exposed at the Spittal Shore GCR site, Berwick-upon-Tweed (details of the Scremerston Coal Group and Upper Limestone Group omitted). After Turner and Scrutton (1995), with additional section details from Frost (1969) and Reynolds (1992). Numbers in (b) relate to cyclothemic sedimentary cycles identified in the Middle Limestone Group beds by Reynolds (1992).

(Figure 3.31) Lateral accretion surfaces (epsilon cross-bedding) in fluvio-deltaic channel sandstones near the top of the Scremerston Coal Group at Hud's Head in the Spittal Shore section (the hammer, for scale, is 30 cm long). Above this, a prominent bed, the Dun Limestone (1.5 m thick), marks the base of the overlying Lower Limestone Group. (Photo: P.J. Cossey.)

(Figure 3.32) Graphic log of Middle Limestone Group (Brigantian) sedimentary cycle 2 at the Spittal Shore section. After Reynolds (1992). See text for further details.

(Figure 3.33) Simplified stratigraphical log of the Upper Liddesdale Group (Brigantian) succession at the Penton Linns GCR site, near Langholm. Based on information in Lumsden et al. (1967) and Day (1970).

(Figure 4.1) Geological maps of the Lake District Block and the Alston Block areas showing the distribution of Carboniferous outcrops and the locations of GCR sites mentioned in the text. (a) The Lake District Block (after Moseley, 1978). (b) The Alston Block (after Dunham, 1990). Note that details of the geology outside of the Alston Block area are omitted.

(Figure 4.2) Simplified stratigraphical chart for the Lower Carboniferous succession of the Lake District Block and Alston Block; the age of the Basement Beds is uncertain in many areas. Compilation based on information from Eastwood et al. (1931), George et al. (1976), Rose and Dunham (1977), Mitchell (1978), Ramsbottom (1978a), Arthurton and Wadge (1981), Athersuch and Strank (1989), Horbury (1989), Dunham (1990), Barclay et al. (1994), Chadwick et al. (1995) and Akhurst et al. (1997). Zonal biostratigraphy (Chadian–Brigantian only) after Garwood (1913). Areas of vertical ruling indicate non-sequences. Not to scale. Note that following text submission, the majority of those lithostratigraphical units in the 'South Cumbria' and West Cumbria (concealed)' columns have been designated as formations (Johnson et al., 2001).

(Figure 4.3) Stratigraphy of the Lower Carboniferous Chief Limestone Group in west Cumbria. (BB — Basement Beds; GB — Girvanella Band (= Girvanella Nodular Bed, see Clints and Steelbarrow Quarries GCR site report, this chapter); OB — Orionastraea Band; EB — Erythrospongia Band; CB — Chaetetes Band.) After Akhurst et al. (1997).

(Figure 4.4) The Brigantian succession of the Alston Block as typified by that of the Rookhope Borehole. After Holliday et al. (1975).

(Figure 4.5) Typical thin-bedded peritidal limestones in the lower part of the Martin Limestone (Chadian) at the Meathop Quarry GCR site. (Photo: A.E. Adams.)

(Figure 4.6) Simplified sedimentary log across the Martin Limestone-Red Hill Oolite boundary at the Skelwith Hill GCR site. After Adams and Cossey (1981).

(Figure 4.7) Terrestrial breccias and caicretes at the junction of the Martin Limestone (Chadian) and the Red Hill Oolite (Arundian) at the Skelwith Hill GCR site. The prominent pale bed containing calcrete fabrics behind the hammer separates the two units of the Skelwith Breccia, one in the foreground below the hammer and the other immediately above the deeply weathered (recessed) layer. The stratigraphical position of these breccia beds is illustrated in (Figure 4.6). (Photo: P.J. Cossey.)

(Figure 4.8) The north face of Elliscales Quarry showing the near-vertical walls of an unbedded reef limestone mass (centre) surrounded by dolomitized beds within the Arundian succession. The vertical height of the reefs is approximately 10 m. (Photo: A.E. Adams.)

(Figure 4.9) Schematic section of the reef illustrated in (Figure 4.8) showing the ecological succession of frame-building organisms in the reef core. The vertical height is approximately 10 m. Organisms not drawn to scale. After Adams (1984).

(Figure 4.10) The Holkerian Stage stratotype at Barker Scar. The base of the stage (solid line) is defined a few metres above the Dalton Beds (DB)–Park Limestone (PL) boundary (Johnson et al., 2001). The height of the cliff is approximately 10 m. (Photo: JNCC.)

(Figure 4.11) Section of the Upper Urswick Limestone (Asbian) at Trowbarrow Quarry. Note the pseudo-brecciated appearance (possible bioturbation mottling) of bedding plane surfaces seen to the right of the illustration. The younging direction ('way up' of the sequence) is also to the right (to the east). The height of the quarry face is approximately 20 m. (Photo: A.B. Adams.)

(Figure 4.12) Simplified sedimentary log of the Urswick Limestone (Asbian) at Trowbarrow Quarry illustrating the distribution of the principal lithofacies and emergent surfaces. Note that the base of this section also marks the top of the underlying Park Limestone. After Horbury and Adams (1989).

(Figure 4.13) Bedding-plane view of Garwood's (1913) Girvanella Nodular Bed near the base of the Gleaston Formation (Brigantian) at the Humphrey Head GCR site. (Photo: P.J. Cossey.)

(Figure 4.14) The unconformity between Lower Carboniferous Basement Beds and the slates of the Silurian Skiddaw Group exposed in the old railway cutting at the Yeathouse Quarry GCR site. Note keys (right of centre) for scale. (Photo: A. Thurlow.)

(Figure 4.15) Simplified sedimentary log of the Chief Limestone Group succession at Yeathouse Quarry from the Sixth Limestone to the White Limestone. After Thurlow (1996). Numerical subdivisions of the succession refer to Thurlow's (1996) notation of sedimentary cycles.

(Figure 4.16) General view of the Fourth Limestone (Chief Limestone Group, Brigantian) at the north-west corner of the Clints Quarry GCR site. The components of the succession, which are separated by dashed lines, are from the base up: the Spotted Limestone (SP), the Potholes Limestone (P), the Saccammina Limestone (S) and the Junceum Limestone (J). The height of the cliff face is approximately 17 m. (Photo: P.J. Cossey.)

(Figure 4.17) (a) Interpretation of the palaeoenvironments represented within the Great Limestone Cyclothem (Pendleian) in the vicinity of Rogerley Quarry, and (b) simplified sedimentary log of the Rogerley Quarry succession. After Elliot (1975, 1976b).

(Figure 4.18) Palaeogeographical reconstruction to show the course of distributary channels within the early Namurian Stanhope–Stainmore delta lobe and the limits of various Pendleian lithofacies. Also shown are the positions of the Rogerley Quarry and Sleightholme Beck GCR sites. (SBF — Swindale Beck Fault; CF — Closehouse Fault; LF — Lunedale Fault; BF — Butterknowle Fault.) After Hodge and Dunham (1991).

(Figure 5.1) Geological map of the Askrigg Block and Stainmore Basin illustrating the distribution of Carboniferous outcrops and the locations of GCR sites described in the text. Note that outside the area delineated by the bounding faults, only the geology of the Ravenstonedale area is shown, and that within this area igneous rocks are omitted. After Dunham and Wilson (1985).

(Figure 5.2) Simplified geological map of the Craven Reef-Belt, illustrating the distribution of Dinantian reef, shelf and basin facies at the southern margin of the Askrigg Block, with Namurian outcrops omitted for clarity. Reef outcrops are as follows: a — Albert Hill; b — High Hill; c — Scaleber; d — High South Bank; e — Burns; f — Cawden; g — Wedber Brow; h — Swinden; i — Skelterton Hill; j — Carden; k — Butter Haw Hill; 1- Stebden Hill; m — Elbolton; n — Thorpe Kail; o — Byra Bank; p — Hartlington Kail. Based on Brunton and Mundy (1988a) and Mundy (2000).

(Figure 5.3) Simplified stratigraphical chart for the Lower Carboniferous sequence of the Askrigg Block and Stainmore Basin. Compilation based upon and modified after George et al. (1976), Dunham and Wilson (1985), Arthurton et al. (1988), British Geological Survey (1997b,c), and Mundy (2000). Zonal biostratigraphy (Chadian–Brigantian only) after Garwood (1913). For further details of the Wensleydale Group, Upper Alston Group and Stainmore Group successions, see (Figure 5.4). Areas of vertical ruling indicate non-sequences. Not to scale.

(Figure 5.4) The stratigraphy of selective Upper Alston Group and Stainmore Group successions from the Alston Block, Stainmore Basin and Askrigg Block. Note that all units with a brickwork ornament are 'Limestones' unless otherwise specified. (GNB — Girvanella Nodular Bed.) Based on Ramsbottom (1974) and Ramsbottom et al. (1978).

(Figure 5.5) Interpretative lithostratigraphical section across the southern margin of the Askrigg Block across the transition zone into the Craven Basin (not to scale). (LBS — Lower Bowland Shale Formation; SLS Sugar Loaf Shales; SLL — Sugar Loaf Limestone; Lst — Limestone; Mst — Mudstone; Mbr — Member; Fm — Member.) Note, the unit marked as 'conglomerate' lies within the Pendleside Limestone Formation and includes the Scaleber Boulder Bed. Based on British Geological Survey (1989), Mundy and Arthurton (1996) and Mundy (2000).

(Figure 5.6) Section illustrating thickness variations in Dinantian strata across the Askrigg Block and Stainmore Basin. Note that the thicknesses illustrated between the Stockdale Disturbance and the River Balder are uncertain. After Dunham and Wilson (1985).

(Figure 5.7) Sedimentary log of the exposed section of the Pinskey Gill Beds (Courceyan) at the Pinskey Gill GCR site. After Varker and Higgins (1979).

(Figure 5.8) Simplified geological map of the Stone Gill–Scandal Beck section. Based on Garwood, 1913; Turner, 1950; Higgins and Varker, 1982; Institute of Geological Sciences, 1972. The lithostratigraphical terminology derives from the geological map of the Kirkby Stephen district (British Geological Survey, 1997b).

(Figure 5.9) General view of the peritidal and partially dolomitized beds of the Stone Gill Limestone (Chadian) at Stone Gill, Ravenstonedale. (Photo: P.J. Cossey.)

(Figure 5.10) General view of the A685 road cutting at Ash Fell Edge illustrating the transition from the top of the Ashfell Sandstone (Arundian) into the base of the Ashfell Limestone (Holkerian). Seen here, the Ashfell Sandstone includes vari-coloured mudstones (left) and a massive cross-bedded sandstone unit (centre). Higher in the sequence are the prominent limestone beds of the Ashfell Limestone (top centre and right). (Photo: P.J. Cossey.)

(Figure 5.11) Sedimentary log across the Ashfell Sandstone–Ashfell Limestone boundary at the Ash Fell Edge GCR site. After Barraclough (1983).

(Figure 5.12) Sedimentary log across the Ashfell Limestone–Potts Beck Limestone boundary at the Asbian stratotype section, Little Asby Scar. Compilation after information in Ramsbottom (1981). Upper case bed letters are for the eastern scarp; lower case bed letters are for the western scarp.

(Figure 5.13) Biostrome containing Siphonodendron martini, Syringopora geniculata and Chaetetes at the base of the Potts Beck Limestone (early Asbian), Little Asby Scar. (Photo: P.J. Cossey.)

(Figure 5.14) Sedimentary log of the Brigantian stratotype section at the Janny Wood GCR site, near Kirkby Stephen. Compilation after information from Ramsbottom, 1981.

(Figure 5.15) Sedimentary log through the deltaic and barrier-island deposits of the Great Limestone Cyclothem at Sleightholme Beck. After Elliot (1975). Units A-D represent stages recognized by Elliot in the development of the Stanhope-Stainmore delta lobe. A — coastal plain interval; B — progradation; C abandonment phase; D — post-abandonment phase.

(Figure 5.16) Coarsening-upward sequence of barrier-island deposits in the Great Limestone Cyclothem, Sleightholme Beck (unit D of (Figure 5.15); see text for further details). Elliot (1975) interpreted the abrupt change from offshore mudstones and siltstones at the base of the sequence to the shoreface sands exposed higher in the sequence as marking the passage of a landward-migrating barrier-island complex. (Photo: P.J. Cossey.)

(Figure 5.17) The highly fossiliferous nodular bioclastic limestones and shales of the basal Arnsbergian (E_2b) Botany Limestone at How Gill. (Photo: P.J. Cossey.)

(Figure 5.18) (a) Geological map of the GCR site at Malham with details north of the North Craven Fault omitted. After British Geological Survey (1989). Points x and y mark the approximate line of the section illustrated in (b). (b) Section across the Middle Craven Fault showing the relationship between shelf and basin-margin facies. Based on Mundy (1980b) and Mundy and Arthurton (1980).

(Figure 5.19) Outcrop of the Malham Formation at Malham Cove illustrating the massive to weakly bedded units of the Cove limestone Member (Holkerian) capped by well-bedded limestones of the Gordale Limestone Member (Asbian). (Photo: P.J. Cossey.)

(Figure 5.20) (a) Geological map of the Settle GCR site east of Settle. After British Geological Survey (1989). Points x and y mark the approximate line of the section illustrated in (b). (b) Cross-section showing relationships between the shelf, shelf-margin and basin between Warrendale Knotts and the South Craven Fault. Based on Mundy (1980b, 2000) and Mundy and Lord (1982), and including information from British Geological Survey (1989).

(Figure 5.21) Composite log of the Lower Carboniferous succession between the North and Middle Craven faults at the southern end of the Askrigg Block close to Settle. After Mundy (2000), and including information from Arthurton et al. (1982, 1988). (Girv. Nod. Bed — Girvanella Nodular Bed.)

(Figure 5.22) General view of fault-dissected limestone escarpments of Warrendale Knotts (centre) and Attermire Scar (right) at the Settle GCR site, formed by outcrops of the Gordale Limestone Member (Malham Formation, Asbian). (Photo: P.J. Cossey.)

(Figure 5.23) Outcrop of the School Share Boulder Bed (a submarine debris bed) in the Upper Rowland Shale Formation (Pendleian) at the School Share GCR site. (Photo: JNCC.)

(Figure 5.24) Geological map of the Cracoe–Thorpe district. Minor faults and mineral veins omitted. After Mundy (1980a, 2000).

(Figure 5.25) (a) Schematic section through the reef mound at Stebden Hill illustrating the temporal and spatial relationships between reef associations. Approximate orientation is from south (left) to north (right). Vertical height from the top of the microbialite framework to the base of the boulder bed is 120 m. After Mundy (2000). (b) The distinctive outline of the Asbian reef mound at Stebden Hill near Cracoe, viewed from the north-west. The crest of the mound is in framework facies whereas the sloping ground immediately below the reef crest is in flank facies. Fields in the lower ground are underlain by Namurian Bowland Shales. (Photo: D. Mundy, reproduced here by kind permission of the Yorkshire Geological Society)

(Figure 5.26) Massive limestones of the Malham Formation (Asbian) at Meal Bank Quarry, Ingleton. A thick clay palaeosol capped by a coal seam occurs above the prominent palaeokarst at the centre of the quarry face. (Photo: A.E. Adams.)

(Figure 5.27) Outcrop of the Girvanella Nodular Bed (below hammer, left of centre) in the Hawes Limestone (basal Brigantian) at the Pen-y-ghent Gill GCR site. (Photo: P.J. Cossey.)

(Figure 5.28) Sedimentary log of the lower part of the Brigantian 'Yoredale' succession at the Whitfield Gill-Mill Gill GCR site. After Moore (1958).

(Figure 6.1) Geological map of the Craven Basin illustrating the distribution of Carboniferous outcrops and the locations of GCR sites described in the text. Note that in the Bowland Basin area, the hinge traces of major folds within the Ribblesdale Fold Belt are also shown. The Central Lancashire High lies to the south of the Pendle Monocline beneath the area obscured by the key. Based on Riley (1990a) and Brandon et al. (1998).

(Figure 6.2) Simplified stratigraphical chart for the Lower Carboniferous succession of the Craven Basin. (HBL — Hetton Beck Limestone Member; HCBB Haw Crag Boulder Bed; SFL — Scaleber Force Limestone Member; SQL — Scaleber Quarry Limestone Member; SBB — Scaleber Boulder Bed; SLS — Sugar Loaf Shales; SLL — Sugar Loaf Limestone; SSBB School Share Boulder Bed; CoL — Coplow Limestone Member; PQL — Peach Quarry Limestone Member; BL — Bellman Limestone Member; LWL — Limekiln Wood Limestone Member; PM — Phynis Mudstone Member; ChL — Chaigley Limestone Member; FIB — Rad Brook Mudstone Member; PS — Pendleside Sandstones Member; TS — Twiston Sandstone Member; BL — Berwick Limestone.) Areas of vertical ruling indicate non-sequences. Not to scale. Compilation based on Hudson and Mitchell (1937), Metcalfe (1981), Arthurton et al. (1988), British Geological Survey (1989), Riley (1990a, 1995), Aitkenhead et al. (1992), Brandon et al. (1995, 1998).

(Figure 6.3) Schematic section across the Craven Basin from the South Lake District High to the Central Lancashire High showing the possible basement structure during the Arundian–Brigantian interval. After Riley (1990a).

(Figure 6.4) (a) Lateral facies variations along the carbonate ramp that characterized the Craven Basin during the Courceyan–Chadian interval. (b) Facies variations down the slope environments of the Craven Basin during the Arundian–Asbian interval. After Gawthorpe (1986).

(Figure 6.5) Sedimentary log of the Chadian stratotype showing the position of Ramsbottom's (1973) 'Major Cycle 1–2 boundary' (defined by asterisks) and the location of the Courceyan–Chadian boundary as envisaged by George et al. (1976). Based on Barraclough (1983) and Leeder (1988). See text for further discussion.

(Figure 6.6) The Chadian boundary stratotype at the Chatburn Bypass GCR site, as originally defined by Ramsbottom (1981) at the junction between the Horrocksford Beds (below the middle worker) and the Bankfield East Beds (above the middle worker) (Chatburn Limestone Group). See text for further details. (Photo: JNCC.)

(Figure 6.7) Geological map of the area to the east of Clitheroe showing the location of the exposed eroded remnants of the Waulsortian bank facies at The Knolls GCR site (Crow Hill to Gerna Hill) based on a [British] Geological Survey map of the area (Institute of Geological Sciences, 1970). The locations of several other GCR sites in the region (Chatburn Bypass, Salthill and Bellmanpark Quarries, Coplow Quarry, Pendle Hill) are also shown.

(Figure 6.8) General view of Chadian facies in the Clitheroe Limestone Formation at The Knolls GCR site. Note the development of pale massive limestones of the Waulsortian bank facies at Crow Hill (top) overlying bedded 'inter-bank' facies of the Peach Quarry Limestone Member (base), the lateral equivalent of the bank facies at Gerna. (Photo: P.J. Cossey.)

(Figure 6.9) Development of the Waulsortian bank facies (Bellman Limestone Member of the Clitheroe Limestone Formation (Chadian) at Salthill Quarry, Clitheroe. An erosion surface above the bank facies is draped by a crinoid debris layer ('boulder bed') of variable thickness and this is in turn unconformably overlain by dark-grey bedded limestones of the Limekiln Wood Limestone Member. (Photo: A.E. Adams.)

(Figure 6.10) Crinoid calices from the Coplow Quarry GCR site. A — Sampsonocrinus westheadi (Wright), holotype, lateral view (calyx width is 2.8 cm); B —Amphoracrinus gilbertsoni (Phillips), lateral view (calyx width is 1.8 cm); C — Amphoracrinus gilbertsoni (Phillips), lateral/oblique view (calyx width is 2.0 cm); D — Amphoracrinus rotundus Wright, lateral view (calyx width is 2.6 cm); E —Actinocrinites parkinsoni Wright, lateral view (calyx width is 3.7 cm); F — Actinocrinites parkinsoni Wright, lateral view (calyx width is 3.9 cm). Scalebars show millimetre graduations. (Photos: courtesy of D. Lewis, S. Donovan and staff in the Photographic Unit of the Natural History Museum (British Museum).) All specimens are from the Stanley Westhead collection (BMNH).

(Figure 6.11) Simplified geological map illustrating the distribution of Carboniferous strata at the River Hodder GCR site. Based on information from [British] Geological Survey maps of the area (Institute of Geological Sciences, 1975a; British Geological Survey, 1990). Note that areas depicted here as the Hodder Mudstone Formation, the Lower Bowland Shale Formation and the Namurian include, respectively, the following undifferentiated units: the Phynis Mudstone Member; the Pendleside Sandstones Member; and the Upper Bowland Shale and Pendle Grit formations. (PFA — Plantation Farm Anticline.)

(Figure 6.12) Comparative sections of the Holkerian Hodderense Limestone Formation (Worston Shale Group) at the River Hodder GCR site. After Riley (1990a).

(Figure 6.13) Deformational structures (possible slump folds; R. Gawthorpe, pers. comm., 2000) in the late Chadian Hetton Beck Limestone Member (Worston Shale Group) at Sykes Quarry (east), Forest of Bowland. (Photo: P.J. Cossey.)

(Figure 6.14) Geometry of large-scale gravity slide structures in the late Chadian Hetton Beck Limestone Member at Sykes Quarries. After Gawthorpe and Clemmey (1985). (a) Map illustrating the locations of the sections shown in figures (b) and (c). (b) Sykes Quarry (west) showing deformational bed geometries (e — extensional; c — compressional) associated with the principal slide plane (h — hanging wall; f — footwall). (c) Sykes Quarry (east) showing slide planes at right angles to those seen at Sykes Quarry (west) interpreted as lateral ramps. Bold lines in (b) and (c) are slide planes.

(Figure 6.15) Unconformable contact between the Embsay Limestone Member (Arundian, thick-bedded; lower right) and the Twiston Sandstone Member (Holkerian, thin-bedded; top left) in the Hodder Mudstone Formation (Worston Shale Group) at Dowshaw DeIf Quarry, Lothersdale, Lancashire. Note lens cap for scale, left of centre. (Photo: N.J. Riley.)

(Figure 6.16) Geological map and stratigraphy of Lower Carboniferous (Asbian–Pendleian) strata at Little Mearley Clough showing the position of key ammonoid horizons referred to in the text. After Earp et al. (1961). C. — Cravenoceras; T. — Tumilites; S. — Sudeticeras; L. — Lusitanoceras; P. — Paragoniatites; A. — Arnsbergites; Bct. — Beyrichoceratoides; G. — Goniatites; Bt. — Bollandites.

(Figure 6.17) Sedimentary log of the upper part of the Warley Wise Grit Formation (Pendleian) and the lower part of the Sabden Shales Formation (Arnsbergian) exposed in the bed of the River Ribble at Saleswheel, illustrating the position of marine bands referred to in the text. Based on Riley (1985) and Brandon et al. (1998).

(Figure 6.18) Generalized log of Arnsbergian strata (Roeburndale Formation and Wards Stone Sandstone Formation) at Artle Beck, near Caton, Lancashire. After Brandon et al. (1998).

(Figure 6.19) Schematic section of strata at Artle Beck illustrating possible relationships between units of the upper part of the Roeburndale Formation and lower part of the Wards Stone Sandstone Formation. After Brandon et al. (1998). Note that although this section is not to scale, its length is approximately 400 m.

(Figure 6.20) Sedimentary log of the Haw Bank Limestone–Skipton Castle Limestone ramp succession (Courceyan–Arundian) at the Holywell Bridge GCR site. After Gawthorpe (1986). The stratigraphical terminology used here follows that of Metcalfe (1981).

(Figure 6.21) Exposure of the Arundian debris-flow deposit (the Haw Crag Boulder Bed) in the Hodder Mudstone Formation at Haw Crag Quarry, Bell Busk. Note that the prominent block at the foot of the crag (a boulder of the Hetton Beck Limestone Member) is approximately 5 m in diameter. (Photo: P.J. Cossey.)

(Figure 6.22) Sequence of strata at the Clints Quarry GCR site, Rylstone, illustrating the Hodder Mudstone Formation (lower left) unconformably overlain by thickly bedded limestones (centre and right) at the local base of the Lower Bowland Shales (Riley, 1990a). Note that the thickly bedded limestones seen here were mapped as part of the Pendleside Limestone Formation by Arthurton et al. (1988). The most prominent limestone bed is the massive limestone conglomerate (debris bed) referred to in the text. (Photo: P.J. Cossey.)

(Figure 6.23) Fold structures in the turbiditic Draughton Limestone (centre) at the Hambleton Quarry GCR site. The top of the Lower Draughton Limestone is located at the top of the thick (c. 2 m) limestone bed (Tiddeman's Breccia) at the base of the quarry face. Above, and to the right of the Draughton Limestone, are the darker beds of the Draughton Shales. (Photo: P.J. Cossey.)

(Figure 6.24) Sedimentary log of the topmost beds of the Draughton Limestone and lower part of the Draughton Shales at the Hambleton Quarry GCR site near Skipton, Yorkshire. After Metcalfe (1981).

(Figure 7.1) Geological map illustrating the distribution of Carboniferous rocks in Derbyshire, north Staffordshire and north-west Leicestershire, and the locations of GCR sites described in the text. Based on information from [British] Geological Survey memoirs (Aitkenhead et al., 1985; Chisholm et al., 1988) and maps of the area (Institute of Geological Sciences, 1976a, 1978, 1979b, 1983).

(Figure 7.2) (a) Stuctural setting and palaeogeography of central England during Early Carboniferous times. (b) Schematic section of the line A–B marked in (a) illustrating the possible basement structure to the Derbyshire Platform, North Staffordshire Basin–Widmerpool Gulf and Staffordshire Shelf during late Dinantian times. Above this basement structure the approximate locations of Asbian reef developments are shown: a — Weaver Hills; b — Earl Sterndale-Wirksworth margin; c — Castleton. Vertical scale schematic. Based on information in Smith et al. (1985), Gutteridge (1987), Chisholm et al. (1988), Lee (1988a), Gawthorpe et al. (1989), Ebdon et al. (1990), Fraser and Gawthorpe (1990), Corfield (1991), Corfield et al. (1996) and Rees and Wilson (1998).

(Figure 7.3) Simplified stratigraphical chart for the Lower Carboniferous succession of Derbyshire, north Staffordshire and north-west Leicestershire. CTR — Chee Tor Rock; LMDL — Lower Millers Dale Lava; MDB — Millers Dale Beds; SQB Station Quarry Beds. Areas of vertical ruling indicate non-sequences. Not to scale. Note that, unless otherwise stated, all major lithostratigraphical units shown on this chart are recognized as formations. Compilation based on information from Aitkenhead and Chisholm (1982) with additional details from Smith et al. (1967), Aitkenhead et al. (1985), Chisholm et al. (1988), Ambrose and Carney (1997, 1999) and Ambrose (1999).

(Figure 7.4) Palaeogeographies of the Derbyshire and north Staffordshire areas for (a) late Asbian times and (b) late Brigantian times. A faint dotted line marks the position of the Dinantian–Namurian boundary. SS — Staffordshire Shelf; LEA — Longstone Edge Anticline; TBA — Taddington-Bakewell Anticline; BF — Bonsall Fault. After Aitkenhead and Chisholm (1982), with additional information from Gutteridge (1987, 1995).

(Figure 7.5) Simplified geological map of Wye Valley and Cressbrook Dale area illustrating the position of localities referred to in the text. LMDL — Lower Millers Dale Lava; TS — Tideswell Sill; UMDL — Upper Millers Dale Lava; LBL — Lees Bottom Lava; LT — Litton Riff. Based on the [British] Geological Survey maps of the Chapel en le Frith and Buxton districts (Institute of Geological Sciences, 1975b, 1978).

(Figure 7.6) The contact between the Bee Low Limestones (Asbian) and the Station Quarry Beds (Brigantian) at Millers Dale Station Quarry. The contact, which is marked by a significant palaeokarst, occurs towards the top of the quarry where thicker-bedded Bee Low Limestones are overlain by thinner-bedded, darker-coloured limestones of the Station Quarry Beds. The elevated area behind the quarry is formed by the Upper Millers Dale Lava. The height of the quarry face is approximately 20 m. (Photo: P.J. Cossey.)

(Figure 7.7) Summary of the late Asbian–Brigantian stratigraphy of the Millers Dale-Monsal Dale area. Note that the section is split in two: the lower part represents an east-west section through the Litton Mill-Millers Dale area; the upper part represents a north-south section across the Monsal Dale area. The sections described in the text are as follows: 1- Millers Dale Station Quarry; 2 — Millers Dale Quarry; 3 — Litton Mill Railway Cutting; 4 — Cressbrook Tunnel; 5 — Monsal Dale Viaduct Cutting; 6 — White Cliff; 7 — Headstone Cutting. After Butcher and Ford (1973) and Gutteridge (1989a).

(Figure 7.8) Simplified sedimentary log of the Monsal Dale Limestones (Brigantian) at Cressbrook Dale. After Stevenson and Gaunt, 1971.

(Figure 7.9) General view of the thick-bedded and strongly jointed Asbian grainstone facies in the Chee Tor Rock (Bee Low Limestones) at Duchy Quarry The height of the quarry face is approximately 30 m. (Photo: P.J. Cossey.)

(Figure 7.10) Geological map of the Castleton Reef-Belt (Asbian). After Stevenson and Gaunt (1971).

(Figure 7.11) General view across the Castleton Reef-Belt at the northern margin of the Derbyshire Platform. The steeply sloping ground of the fore-reef is clearly seen to the right of Castleton village (left), separating the high plateau shelf area (right) from the basin (lower left). (Photo: P.J. Cossey.)

(Figure 7.12) Block diagram illustrating the distribution of sedimentary facies in the Castleton Reef-Belt. Based on Wolfenden (1958), Timms (1973) and Ford (1996).

(Figure 7.13) Interpretation of the stratigraphy at the Castleton GCR site showing the four principal transgressive–regressive cycles responsible for reef development. Whereas transgressive episodes influenced periods of reef growth as the platform margin was flooded, erosion took place during regressive episodes when parts of the reef complex became subaerially exposed. Although Timms (1978) regarded the Beach Beds as a P _la erosional by-product of a high B_2b reef which is no longer preserved, their placement at a higher stratigraphical level here (P_1b) is based on evidence provided by Gutteridge (1991a, 1996); see text for further details. After Timms (1978).

(Figure 7.14) (a) General view of the large-scale carbonate sand-body (lower centre) in the Bee Low Limestones (Asbian) at the Pindale Quarry GCR site, near Castleton. The dip of the overlying thinly bedded Monsal Dale Limestones (Brigantian) at the top of the face increases to the north-east (left) as they drape the platform margin. The height of the face is approximately 25 m. (Photo: P.J. Cossey.) (b) Sedimentary log of the Pindale succession. The shoal sequence refers to the large-scale carbonate sand-body illustrated in (a). The Asbian–Brigantian boundary is taken at the second palaeokarstic surface overlying the carbonate sand-body (see Eden et al., 1964). (c) Detailed sketch section of the lower part of Pindale illustrating the geometry of beds and limestone microfacies associated with the large-scale bedform in the Bee Low Limestones (Asbian). Note that blank areas of the section are those from which no microfacies data are currently available. The dashed line between asterisks marks the line of the logged section illustrated in (b). After Gawthorpe and Gutteridge (1990).

(Figure 7.15) Development of late Dinantian (Brigantian) carbonate mud-mound at the top of the Monsal Dale Limestones in upper Lathkill Dale (Ricklow Quarry GCR site). The mud-mound forms a prominent crag (c. 8 m high) at the top of the valley side where the lateral transition from the mainly unbedded buildup-core facies (right) into flank facies (left) can be clearly seen. (Photo: P Gutteridge.)

(Figure 7.16)  Sedimentary log of the Eyam Limestones succession exposed at Monyash (Bricks) Quarry. After Gutteridge (1983).

(Figure 7.17) Block diagram illustrating the relative distribution of quarries at the National Stone Centre, Wirksworth. Note that in this figure an element of an east-west shortening is illustrated in the vicinity of the footbridge. NSC indicates the approximate position of the National Stone Centre building. After Walkden (1982).

(Figure 7.18) Carbonate mud-mound at Coal Hills Quarry (National Stone Centre) at the top of the Monsal Dale Limestones. Note that the massive mud-mound core facies (middle), seen here draped by bedded crinoidal grainstones of the Eyam Limestones (left), is now largely quarried away. (Photo: P.J. Cossey.)

(Figure 7.19) General view of the Monsal Dale Limestones and Eyam Limestones at the Cawdor Quarry GCR site, Matlock. The Monsal Dale Limestones comprise pale, thickly bedded limestones that form the lower two-thirds of the face. The top of the formation is marked by a palaeokarstic surface overlain disconformably by thinly bedded and darker units of the Eyam Limestones. The height of the face is approximately 15 m. (Photo: P. Gutteridge.)

(Figure 7.20) The intra-Brigantian angular unconformity at Baileycroft Quarry showing irregular bedded Eyam Limestones (EL) above the unconformity surface (U/C) cutting down into the thinner, darker beds of the Monsal Dale Limestones (MDL) and the underlying thicker, paler beds of the Bee Low Limestones (BLL). The tape measure (see arrow, bottom centre) is 1.3 in long. (Photo: P Gutteridge.)

(Figure 7.21) Sketch section of the slumped and re-sedimented Brigantian beds in the salt stockpile area at Baileycroft Quarry. Half-arrows indicate slump planes (probable movement is into the plane of the section). The asterisked slump plane marks the contact previously interpreted as the sub-Brigantian (P₂–D₁) unconformity (see text for further details).

(Figure 7.22) Sedimentary log of the section in the Monsal Dale Limestones (Brigantian) formerly seen at the Dale Quarry GCR site, Wirksworth. Parts of the section are now obscurred by infill (see Gutteridge, 2003).

(Figure 7.23) Measured sections of the Monsal Dale Limestones along the lower entrance to Dale Quarry showing the complex imbricate structure of two slump sheets. The slump is overlain erosively by a coarse bioclastic grainstone. Note the vertical exaggeration of the scale (x4). After Gutteridge (2003).

(Figure 7.24) Simplified geological map of the Dovedale region illustrating the distribution of 'knoll reef' (carbonate mud-mound) facies (k) in the Milldale Limestones and the positions of localities referred to in the text: 1- Gratton Hill; 2 — Wolfscote Dale; 3 — Biggin Dale; 4 — Thorpe Cloud; 5 — Bunster Hill; 6 — Sharplow Dale; 7 — Hall Dale; 8 — Nabs Dale; 9 — Coldeaton Bridge; 10 — Dove Holes; 11- Dovedale Castle; 12 — Milldale; 13 — Ravens Tor; 14 — Iron Tom; 15 — Gypsy Bank; 16 — Alstonefield. Compilation based on [British] Geological Survey maps of the area (Institute of Geological Sciences, 1978, 1983).

(Figure 7.25) General view of the carbonate mud-mound facies developed in the Milldale Limestones at Ravens Tor, Dovedale. Note the lateral transition from the massive mud-mound core facies (centre) to bedded flank and intermound facies (right). (Photo: P.J. Cossey.)

(Figure 7.26) Simplified geological map of the Wetton to Beresford Dale GCR site, showing the distribution of 'knoll reef' facies (k) both in the Milldale Limestones (carbonate mud-mound facies) and in the Hopedale Limestones. Also shown are the positions of localities referred to in the text: 1- Wolfscote Dale; 2 — Beresford Dale; 3 — Wetton Hill East; 4 — Wetton Hill West; 5 — Gratton Hill; 6 — Narrowdale Hill; 7 — Gateham Hill; 8 — Swainsley; 9 — Ecton Bridge; 10 — Apes Tor; 11 — Wettonmill; 12 — Ossoms Hill; 13 — Thors Cave; 14 — Ladyside Wood; MVFP — Manifold Valley Fault Plexus. After the [British] Geological Survey map of the Buxton district (Institute of Geological Sciences, 1978).

(Figure 7.27) Sketch cross-section through the Thors Cave carbonate mud-mound from Ladyside Wood [SK 0947 5487] to the bed of the River Manifold [SK 0988 5509]. After Chisholm et al. (1988).

(Figure 7.28) Sedimentary log of the late Chadian Milldale Limestones and the Hopedale Limestones succession at Brown End Quarry, Waterhouses. Based on Chishom et al. (1988) and Cossey et al. (1995).

(Figure 7.29) General view of the steeply dipping Milldale Limestones at the Brown End Quarry GCR site showing the position of the inverted mud-mound block (top right) referred to in the text. (Photo: P.J. Cossey.)

(Figure 7.30) General view of the Caldon Low Conglomerate (lower half of cliff face) in the Hopedale Limestones at Caldon Low Quarry. The height of the cliff is approximately 6 m. (Photo: P.J. Cossey.)

(Figure 7.31) Section of strata at Cauldon Quarry, illustrating the distribution of lithofacies (units A–E) at the base of the Hopedale Limestones. Note the development of a prominent conglomeratic unit (unit A), the presumed equivalent of the Caldon Low Conglomerate seen at the Caldon Low Quarry GCR site to the west, overlying a prominent erosion surface (unconformity) cut into the underlying Milldale Limestones. After Chisholm et al. (1988).

(Figure 7.32) Schematic log section of the lower Namurian succession at Cauldon Railway Cutting. After Morris (1967b).

(Figure 7.33) General view of Pendleian strata (mainly fissile mudstones) at Cauldon Railway Cutting. Note the prominent bullion beneath the lens-cap scale, lower right. (Photo: P.J. Cossey.)

(Figure 7.34) Dissolution surface in the Ticknall Limestone (Brigantian) at the Grace Dieu GCR site. Note that part of this section is currently obscured. (Photo: P.J. Cossey.)

(Figure 7.35) Interbedded limestones and fissile mudstones in the lower unit of the Ticknall Limestone (Brigantian) at the Ticknall Quarries GCR site. The hammer towards the centre of the photograph indicates scale. (Photo: M.A. Purnell.)

(Figure 7.36) Fallen dolostone block from the Milldale Limestones containing numerous internal molds of large brachiopods including Levitusia hurnerosa. The large L. humerosa in the foreground is 6 cm wide. (Photo: M.A. Purnell.)

(Figure 8.1) Geological map of North Wales illustrating the distribution of Carboniferous rocks and the locations of GCR sites described in the text. Based on [British] Geological Survey maps of the area (principally institute of Geological Sciences, 1979b).

(Figure 8.2) Simplified stratigraphical chart for the Lower Carboniferous succession of North Wales. In the central areas of the Great Orme, the Little Orme and Llanddulas to Denbigh, Warren et al. (1984) placed Brigantian strata in the Gronant Group and Asbian strata in the Dyserth Limestone Group. Compilation based on information from Power (1977), Somerville (1979a), Davies (1982), Somerville and Strank (1984c), Warren et al. (1984), Somerville et al. (1986) and Davies et al. (1989). Areas of vertical ruling indicate non-sequences. Not to scale.

(Figure 8.3) Palaeogeography of North Wales during Dinantian times illustrating (a) the situation after the Chadian transgression (after Somerville et al., 1989), and (b) the maximum extent of the shelf sea during Asbian times. After Warren et al. (1984).

(Figure 8.4) A north to south section across north-east Wales showing the transition from carbonate ramp to reef-rimmed carbonate shelf during Dinantian times, with inferred facies for the Irish Sea Basin area: (a) Chadian, (b) Arundian–Holkerian, (c) Asbian. After Somerville et al. (1989). The approximate length of the sections is 50 km.

(Figure 8.5) Conglomerate at the eastern end of the Lligwy Bay Disturbance showing a chaotic array of limestone blocks set in a red shale matrix. The rucksack, for scale (left of centre), is approximately 50 cm in length. (Photo: P.J. Cossey.)

(Figure 8.6) Sedimentary log of the Tandinas Limestone Formation (early Asbian) at Tandinas Quarry. Sections shown are for the main quarry (cycles 9 to 14), the adjacent sea cliffs (cycles 1 to 7 plus) and the transition zone (cycles 7 to 9) that links the quarry to the coastal exposures. After Power (1977).

(Figure 8.7) Tandinas Quarry showing the boundary (dashed line) between the Tandinas Limestone Formation (early Asbian) and the overlying Penmon Limestone Formation (late Asbian). Pale-coloured carbonate mudstones of tidal-flat facies immediately below this contact form the top to cycle 14 of the Tandinas Limestone Formation. The height of the cliff is approximately 30 m. (Photo: P.J. Cossey.)

(Figure 8.8) Sedimentary log of the Penmon Limestone Formation (late Asbian) at Flagstaff Quarry. Cycles of Power (1977) indicated in large numbers. Cycles of Power and Somerville (1975) indicated by small numbers. An asterisk at the 1–2 cycle boundary of Power marks the approximate line of division between the Careg Onen Limestone Formation and the overlying Flagstaff Limestone Formation of Davies (1982). After Power (1977).

(Figure 8.9) Sedimentary log of the Red Wharf Cherty Limestone Formation (late Brigantian) in the vicinity of Red Wharf Bay village and Trwyn Dwlban. After Walkden and Davies (1983).

(Figure 8.10) Sandstone pipe infilling a palaeokarstic pit in late Brigantian beds of the Red Wharf Cherty Limestone Formation at Trwyn Dwlban. Note the pipe extension (p) from the base of the St David's Sandstone (SDS) into the underlying Upper Dwlban Beds (UDB) and the irregular nature of the subaerial erosion surface (palaeokarst) which separates the two units. (SDB — St David's Beds.) The rucksack, for scale, is approximately 50 cm in length. (Photo: P.J. Cossey.)

(Figure 8.11) Development of the Trwyn Dwlban Palaeokarst. (a) Uplift of carbonate sediments and lithification, followed by karstification and the deposition of white laminated sand. Further lithification produces resistant sandstone plugs. (b) Arrival of buff conglomerate and renewed solution forms conglomerate-filled pits. Some earlier formed plugs are liberated and some 'moating' takes place around others. Lithification of the conglomerate. (c) Channel formation and fdl with limestone breccia. Renewed lithification. (d) Deposition of mud followed by buff sandstone. Renewed solution forms buff sand-filled pits lined with shale and some pits penetrate the breccia. Compaction and lithification of the shale. (e) Quaternary erosion of the surface. After Walkden and Davies (1983).

(Figure 8.12) Cliff and escarpment sections in the bedded and cyclic Great Orme Limestone (Dyserth Limestone Group, Asbian) near Ogof Hafnant at the Great Orme GCR site, Llandudno. (Photo: P.J. Cossey.)

(Figure 8.13) Sedimentary logs of parts of the Foel Formation (late Chadian) and Dyserth Quarry Limestone (Arundian) at (a) Pentre-bach North Quarry, and (b) Pentre-bach South Quarry. After Somerville et al. (1989).

(Figure 8.14) Locality map for the Eglwyseg Mountain GCR site.

(Figure 8.15) Sedimentary logs of the Ty-nant Limestone Formation (early Asbian) at the Eglwyseg Mountain GCR site showing lateral facies variations and cycle-top correlations. After Somerville (1979b).

(Figure 8.16) Sedimentary logs of the Eglwyseg Limestone Formation (late Asbian) showing cycle-top correlations in the central and southern areas of the Eglwyseg Mountain GCR site. After Somerville (1979a).

(Figure 8.17) The stepped escarpment at Eglwyseg Mountain showing the development of Somerville's (1979a) minor cycles 1–8 in the late Asbian Eglwyseg Limestone Formation overlying the topmost beds of the early Asbian Ty-nant Limestone Formation (T). The height of the main escarpment from the base of the Eglwyseg Limestone to the top of minor cycle 5 is approximately 80 m. (Photo: P.J. Cossey.)

(Figure 8.18) Styles of cyclicity in late Dinantian limestones at Eglwyseg Mountain. (a) A typical Eglwyseg Limestone (late Asbian) cycle. After Somerville (1979a). (b) An ideal Trefor Limestone (Brigantian) cycle. Based on Gray (1981) and Tucker (1985).

(Figure 9.1) Outcrop map showing the distribution of Dinantian strata in South Wales, Gloucestershire, Avon and north Somerset, and the locations of GCR sites described in the text. Compiled from various sources and including information from [British] Geological Survey maps of the area (principally Institute of Geological Sciences, 1979b).

(Figure 9.2) Simplified stratigraphical chart illustrating the most widely used lithostratigraphical terms for the Lower Carboniferous sequences in South Wales, the Forest of Dean, Bristol and the Mendips. (SD — Sychnant Dolomite; PCO — Pwil y Cwm Oolite; PB — Pantydarren Beds; BOO — Blaen Onnen Oolite; CFF — Coed Ffyddlwn Formation; CHM — Clydach Halt Member; CLM —Cheltenham Limestone Member; POM — Penllwyn Oolite Member; GCM — Gilwern Clay Member; LIS —Lower Limestone Shale; CHO — Cefnyrhendy Oolite; CCL — Castell Coch Limestone; AWM — Astridge Wood Member; MM — Mitcheldean Member; GCO — Goblin Combe Oolite; LCS — Lower Cromhall Sandstone; MCS — Middle Cromhall Sandstone.) Areas of vertical ruling indicate non-sequences. Not to scale. Based on information from and after Welch and Trotter (1961), Green and Welch (1965), Institute of Geological Sciences (1973, 1977c), George et al. (1976), Wright (1982b), Whittaker and Green (1983), Burchette (1987), Waters and Lawrence (1987), Barclay et al. (1988), Scott (1988), Barclay (1989), Wilson et al. (1990) and Kellaway and Welch (1993).

(Figure 9.3) Simplified stratigraphical sections of Dinantian strata in south-west Britain illustrating the distribution of Dinantian lithofacies. Section (a) based on Wright (1986a) and Burchette et al. (1990); approximate length of section, 100 km. Section (b) based on information from Kellaway and Welch (1955, 1993), Burchette et al. (1990) and Green (1992); approximate length of section, 80 km. (LLS — Lower Limestone Shale; CCL — Castell Coch Limestone; ShL — Shipway Limestone; BrO — Brofiscin Oolite; TPL — Tears Point Limestone; CBO Caswell Bay Oolite; GO — Gully Oolite; AOG — Abercriban Oolite Group; CBM — Caswell Bay Mudstone; PL — Pen-y-Holt Limestone; HTL — High Tor Limestone; StL — Stackpole Limestone; HBO — Hunts Bay Oolite; DoL — Dowlais Limestone; CmL — Crickmail Limestone; OHL — Oxwich Head Limestone; SB — Shirehampton Beds; StO — Stowe Oolite; BRL — Black Rock Limestone; BRD — Black Rock Dolomite; LD — Lower Dolomite; CL — Crease Limestone; VL — Vallis Limestone; BO — Burrington Oolite; GCO — Goblin Combe Oolite; CDM — Clifton Down Mudstone; WL — Whitehead Limestone; CDL — Clifton Down Limestone; SO — Seminula Oolite; DL — Drybrook Limestone; LDS — Lower Drybook Sandstone; UDS — Upper Drybook Sandstone; LCS — Lower Cromhall Sandstone; MCS Middle Cromhall Sandstone; UCS — Upper Cromhall Sandstone; HL — Hotwells Limestone.)

(Figure 9.4) The Lower Carboniferous palaeogeography of south-east Wales and part of southern England illustrating the distribution of facies for the (a) Courceyan, (b) Arundian, and (c) and Holkerian stages. (MM — Mitcheldean Member; SO — Stowe Oolite; CM — Cwmyniscoy Mudstone; LF — Llanelly Formation; CBM — Caswell Bay Mudstone; HTL — High Tor Limestone (p — peloidal; sk — skeletal); BL — Birnbeck Limestone; BO — Burrington Oolite; VL — Vallis Limestone; CDM — Clifton Down Mudstone; WL — Whitehead Limestone; DL — Drybrook Limestone; DoL — Dowlais Limestone; SL — Stormy Limestone; DS — Drybrook Sandstone; CO — Cornelly Oolite; CDL — Clifton Down Limestone; UA — Usk Axis; ML — Malvern Line; SEFZ — Severn Estuary Fault Zone; LSA — Lower Severn Axis.) Based on Burchette (1987) and Wilson et al. (1988).

(Figure 9.5) Early Namurian palaeogeography of South Wales. After Kelling (1974).

(Figure 9.6) (a) The Lower Carboniferous succession of the Clydach area illustrating the positions of the main sections exposed at the Llanelly Quarry GCR site (1 — Nant Sychnant section; 2 — Llanelly Quarry section. SD — Sychnant Dolomite; PCO — Pwyll-y-Cwm Oolite; PB — Pantydarren Beds; BOO — Blaen Onnen Oolite; CFF — Coed Ffyddlwn Formation). After Barclay (1989). (b) Details of the Llanelly Formation succession at Llanelly Quarry. The formation extends from the base of the Clydach Halt Member to the base of the Dowlais Limestone. The units of special interest here are the Darrenfelen Geosol and the Gilwern Clay Member. After Wright (1981a). Note, the key relates specifically to Figure (b) only.

(Figure 9.7) The main face at the Llanelly Quarry GCR site. The illustrated section extends from the top of the Gilwem Oolite (GO) through the overlying Llanelly Formation (CLM — Cheltenham Limestone Member; POM — Penllwyn Oolite Member; GCM — Gilwem Clay Member) and into the Dowlais Limestone (DoL). The lower arrow marks the position of an erosion surface/palaeokarst at the top of the Gilwern Oolite and the base of the Llanelly Formation, while the upper arrow marks the base of the Dowlais Limestone and the top of the Llanelly Formation. The middle arrow indicates the position of the Cwm Dyar Geosol at the top of the Cheltenham Limestone Member. (Photo: VP Wright.)

(Figure 9.8) Schematic representation of the complex relationships found in the Clydach Halt Member at Clydach Halt Lime Works. The Gilwern Oolite was deposited in very shallow marine conditions and exposed by a fall in sea level. It underwent dissolution by rainwater to produce a distinctive type of rubbly palaeokarst horizon, in a humid climate. This is overlain by two calcrete palaeosols separated by a thin conglomerate composed of calcrete and oolite clasts. This thin conglomerate was also calcretized. The lower calcrete is preserved in a small depression in the top of the Gilwern Oolite but in other sections at the site only the upper calcrete is visible. See text for further details. After Wright (1982b).

(Figure 9.9) Deformed calcretes (pseudo-anticlines) of the Cwm Dyar Geosol in the Cheltenham Limestone Member of the Llanelly Formation at Clydach Halt Lime Works. (Photo: V.P. Wright.)

(Figure 9.10) Stratigraphical relationships of the section at Blaen Onneu Quarry and the sections to the east towards the Clydach Gorge, showing westerly overstep by the Llanelly Formation.

(Figure 9.11) Section of strata at Blaen Onneu Quarry showing massively bedded bioclastic and oolitic grainstones of the Blaen Onnen Oolite (BOO) with a 3–5 m thick rubbly palaeokarst zone (r) at its top (just above centre) penetrated by irregular clay-filled pipes and fissures, capped by well-bedded, bioclastic, oncoidal and oolitic limestones of the Llanelly Formation (LF). (Photo: P.J. Cossey.)

(Figure 9.12) Sedimentary log of the Llanelly Formation succession at Blaen Onneu Quarry

(Figure 9.14) Calcrete deposits in the Clydach Halt Member (CHM) of the Llanelly Formation at the Odynau Tyle'r Bont GCR site sandwiched between the top of the Abercriban Oolite (AO) (base of section), and the base of the Cheltenham Limestone Member (CLM) (top of section). The calcretes represent a prolonged phase of soil formation under semiarid conditions and probably developed on a highly dissected landscape, the modern equivalents of which can be found in New Mexico and Texas. (Photo: P.J. Cossey.)

(Figure 9.13) Comparative log sections of the Clydach Halt Member (Llanelly Formation) at (a) Odynau Tyle'r Bont and (b) Baltic Quarry, illustrating the development of multiple calcrete palaeosols of the Tyle'r Bont Pedocomplex. Such calcretes are found today forming in semi-arid regions and require extended periods of time in which to develop. The presence of stacked calcrete horizons of this type indicate that the land surfaces aggraded in stages, but it is likely that between each phase the land surface remained stable for possibly hundreds of thousands of years. Note the development of fluvial siliciclastic deposits (conglomerates and sandstones) associated with fenestral calcretes in the Clydach Halt Member at Baltic Quarry. See text for further details. After Wright (1982b).

(Figure 9.15) Alluvial deposits in the Clydach Halt Member (CHM) of the Llanelly Formation at Baltic Quarry. The rubbly top to the Abercriban Oolite (AO) is seen towards the middle of the figure. Note the hammer for scale (centre). (Photo: P.J. Cossey.)

(Figure 9.16) Sedimentary facies within the Clydach Valley Group–Abercriban Oolite Group in the Cwar yr Hendre and Cwar yr Ystrad area. The Pantydarren Beds contain a range of exposure-related features, including coastal marsh dolomites. After Searl (1988c).

(Figure 9.17) Section of strata at Cwar yr Hendre illustrating the unconformity between the marine Courceyan Blaen Onnen Oolite (BOO) and the overlying Arundian–Holkerian sequence comprising peritidal and terrestrial deposits of the Llanelly Formation (LF) and marine beds of the Dowlais Limestone (DoL). Evidence of this unconformity is seen in the development of a palaeokarst and pedogenic fabrics in the rubbly top of the Blaen Onnen Oolite. Note the development of the soft-weathering Gilwem Clay Member towards the top of the Llanelly Formation, and the prominent steeply dipping fault towards the right side of the figure. The height of the quarry face is approximately 20 m. (Photo: P.J. Cossey.)

(Figure 9.18) The Arundian Stage stratotype at Hobbyhorse Bay. The base of the stage is defined at the boundary between the top of the Hobbyhorse Bay Limestone (HBL) and the base of the overlying Pen-y-Holt Limestone (PHL). (Photo: S. Howells.)

(Figure 9.19) Steeply dipping section of the thinly bedded Caswell Bay Mudstone overlying the top of the Caswell Bay Oolite (bottom right) at the Tenby Cliffs GCR site. (Photo: British Geological Survey, No. A327, reproduced with the permission of the Director, British Geological Survey, NERC, all rights reserved (IPR/19–39C).)

(Figure 9.20) The interpretation of depositional environments represented by the Lower Carboniferous succession at the Three Cliffs Bay GCR site, Gower.

(Figure 9.21) General view of the cliff section in the Hunts Bay Oolite (Holkerian) at Three Cliffs Bay. (Photo: P.J. Cossey.)

(Figure 9.22) Pseudobreccias in the Oxwich Head Limestone (Asbian) at the Pwlldu Head GCR site. (Photo: P.J. Cossey.)

(Figure 9.23) Diagrammatic section illustrating the structure and stratigraphy of the Penmaen Burrows Limestone Group-Hunts Bay Oolite succession (Courceyan–Holkerian) along the eastern side of Caswell Bay. The section length is approximately 750 m. (A) and (B) refer to the location of the sections illustrated in (Figure 9.25). After Owen and Rhodes (1969).

(Figure 9.24) Cross-stratification and disarticulated brachiopod valves in oolitic grainstones of the Caswell Bay Oolite at Caswell Bay. (Photo: A.E. Adams.)

(Figure 9.25) Comparative sections of the Caswell Bay Mudstone at Caswell Bay illustrating some of the lateral variations in lithofacies. The location of the sections is shown in (Figure 9.23). After Ramsay (1987). are limited, but calcispheres, ostracodes, foraminifera and crinoid fragments are characteristic.

(Figure 9.26) General view of the Hunts Bay Oolite (Holkerian) at Bracelet Bay, Gower. (Photo: P.J. Cossey.)

(Figure 9.27) Oncoids associated with Composita ficoidea in the Hunts Bay Oolite (Holkerian) at the Bracelet Bay GCR site. (Photo: A.E. Adams.)

(Figure 9.28) Sedimentary log of the main quarry face in the Oxwich Head Limestone (Asbian) at Ilston Quarry showing the location of six clay palaeosols and two rubble horizons. After information supplied courtesy of N.A.H. Pickard.

(Figure 9.29) General view of the Oxwich Head Limestone (Asbian) at Ilston Quarry. Beds dip from top left to bottom right (to the north-east). Note the presence of two prominent clay-filled solution pits (each approximately 2 m deep) on a palaeokarstic surface seen towards the centre of the illustration. (Photo: V.P. Wright.)

(Figure 9.30) Model to show why the exposure surfaces at Ilston Quarry differ from those in other parts of the UK. Differences arise because of the contrasting depths of the platforms. Shallow platforms were exposed early during periods of sea-level fall, when the prevailing climate was more arid (X). As a result, the exposed carbonate sediments acted as substrates for roots that became lightly calcified in the semi-arid conditions forming rhizocretions. These shallow platforms were not flooded until late on in the rise part of each sea-level cycle, when the climate was again more arid (Y) after a humid phase. In the case of platforms that were slightly deeper (perhaps by only a few metres, as the sea-level oscillations were only in the order of 10–30 m), subaerial exposure did not take place until the climate had become more humid (I), and the exposure surface was flooded while the prevailing climate was still humid (II). The sea-level oscillation curve is here drawn as symmetric in form, but an asymmetric form is more likely, with the rise part of each cycle being rapid. After Vanstone (1996).

(Figure 9.31) General view of the Brigantian Oystermouth Beds at Oystermouth Old Quarry, near Swansea. (Photo: P.J. Cossey.)

(Figure 9.32) Sedimentary log of the Courceyan Tongwynlais Formation (Lower Limestone Shale Group) at Tongwynlais Road Cutting. After Waters and Lawrence (1987), with interpretations based on information from Burchette (1987) and Burchette et al. (1990).

(Figure 9.33) The Brofiscin Oolite (left) and the Friars Point Limestone (top centre and right) at Brofiscin Quarry near Groes Faen. The development of the oolitic and shelly beds of the Brofiscin Oolite, with its prominent chert nodules, records a regional shallowing event across the South Wales area during Courceyan times. (Photo: P.J. Cossey.)

(Figure 9.34) General view of Danygraig, Risca, illustrating shallow marine and peritidal deposits of the Rudry Formation. This site forms an important link between the Caswell Bay Mudstone of southern outcrops and the Llanelly Formation of the North Crop. (Photo: P.J. Cossey.)

(Figure 9.35) Interbedded limestones and shales of the Courceyan Lower Limestone Shale Group at the Stenders Quarry GCR site in the Forest of Dean. (Photo: P.J. Cossey.)

(Figure 9.36) Thick-bedded sandstones and finer siliciclastics of the Drybook Sandstone at Edgehill Sand Quarry, Gloucestershire. The upper part of the section seen in the background (top right) includes part of Sullivan's (1964b) Edgehills Sandstone and the Edgehills Coal (see text for further details, and Cleal, 1986). (Photo: P.J. Cossey.)

(Figure 9.37) Comparative sections of Dinantian strata exposed at the Avon Gorge and Burrington Combe GCR sites. After Kellaway and Welch (1993) and including non-sequence information from Ramsbottom (1973) and George et al. (1976). Biostratigraphical information is from Vaughan (1905, 1906), Reynolds and Vaughan (1911) and Reynolds (1921). Horizons a, _R and y are based on Vaughan (1905).

(Figure 9.38) Simplified geological map of the Avon Gorge showing the position of localities referred to in the text. AVI' — Avon Thrust Fault; SVRF — St Vincent's Rocks Fault. After Kellaway and Welch (1993).

(Figure 9.39) The spectacular outcrops of the Clifton Down Limestone at the Clifton Suspension Bridge in the Avon Gorge. (Photo: P.J. Cossey.)

(Figure 9.40) General view of the upper part of the Burrington Oolite at Burrington Combe. A thin band crossing the centre of the figure (top right to bottom left) marks the position of the dolomitic 'Rib Mudstone' and the Arundian–Holkerian boundary (see text for further details). (Photo: P.J. Cossey.)

(Figure 9.41) Outcrop of the Lower Limestone Shale Group at Maesbury Railway Cutting. (Photo: P.J. Cossey.)

(Figure 9.42) Quarry section in the Black Rock Limestone (Courceyan) at the southern end of the Vallis Vale GCR site. (Photo: P.J. Cossey.)

(Figure 9.43) Minor cycles in the Hotwells Limestone (Asbian) at Cook's Wood Quarry. The height of the cliff face is approximately 18 m. (Photo: P.J. Cossey.)

(Figure 9.44) Rhizocrction fabrics in a calcrete palacosol at the top of the Gully Oolite (Chadian) on Flat Ilolm. (Photo: P.J. Cossey.)

(Figure 9.45) The Flat Holm Limestone Member of the Birnbeck Limestone (Arundian) at Flat Holm showing the development of the thinly bedded dolomitic mudstone units B, C, D, E and F referred to in the text. (Photo: P.J. Cossey.)

(Figure 9.46) Simplified sedimentary log of the Flat Holm Limestone Member of the Birnbeck Limestone (Arundian) at Flat Holm. Note the intercalation of six thinly bedded dolomitic mudstone units (A-F) in a succession of bioclastic and oolitic limestones. After information in Whittaker and Green (1983).

(Figure 9.47) Sedimentary log of the Clifton Down Limestone at the Barnhill Quarry GCR site, Chipping Sodbury. The lower half of the succession is well exposed on the eastern side of the site (see (Figure 9.48)). The columnar stromatolites seen towards the top of the succession crop out on a quarry bench on the western side of the site. Note that the Lower Cromhall Sandstone is not exposed at this site. After, in part, information from Murray and Wright (1971).

(Figure 9.48) The lower part of the Clifton Down Limestone at Barnhill Quarry, Chipping Sodbury, showing a prominent sandstone bedding plane surface covered in wave ripples and overlain by shallow marine oolitic–stromatolitic grainstones. (Photo: P.J. Cossey.)

(Figure 9.49) Stromatolitic domes on the top surface of a stromatolite unit near the base of the Clifton Down Limestone at Barnhill Quarry (see text for further details. (Photo: V.P. Wright.)

(Figure 10.1) Simplified geological map of central south-west England showing the northern and southern outcrops of Dinantian strata and the locations of GCR sites described in the text. Based on [British] Geological Survey maps of the area (Institute of Geological Sciences, 1969c,d, 1974a,b,c,d, 1975c, 1976c,d,e, 1977d, 1980a,b, 1982; British Geological Survey, 1993b, 1994, 1995b,c, 1998).

(Figure 10.2) Simplified stratigraphical chart for the Lower Carboniferous strata of the Culm Trough. Compilation based on information from Seiwood and Thomas (1987), Jackson (1991) and Owens and Tilsley (1995). Much of the stratigraphical nomenclature in the CuIm Trough is informal and is reproduced here according to common usage. The aim is to summarize a range of differing successions rather than imply that the rock units are well dated and have isochronous boundaries. Note that the Chert Beds and the Bealbury Formation in the Crocadon Formation of the St Mellion Klippe may be olistoliths or isolated thrust-bound units; see Viverdon Down Quarry GCR site report (this chapter) for further details. Half-arrows represent thrust faults. Stour. Fm — Stourscombe Formation. Not to scale.

(Figure 10.3) Biostratigraphical schemes for the Lower Carboniferous strata in the Culm Trough based on conodonts, miospores and ammonoids. The distribution of other useful fossil groups is also shown; entomozoid ostracodes are locally abundant in the Courceyan Stage (Selwood et al., 1982; Gooday, 1983), as are diverse trilobite and brachiopod faunas (Goldring, 1955, 1970). Trilobites are more sporadic in the Chadian (Owens and Tilsley, 1995) and younger stages (Prentice, 1967) but the concurrence of Posidonia becheri and Neoglyphioceras spirale is a common feature within the early Brigantian Posidonia Beds (Thomas, 1982; Riley, 1993).

(Figure 10.4) Palaeoenvironmental reconstruction for the Lower Carboniferous sequence of south-west England (after Thomas, 1982). Note the association of oolite shoals, productoids, corals and crinoids on the South Wales–Mendip Shelf and its possible southward extension. Subtle changes of basin-floor topography may influence the direction of turbidite flows or dictate sedimentation patterns, forming isolated rise-related successions. The southern margin of the Culm Trough was a mobile orogenic front associated with coarse clastic and volcanic rocks. Half-arrows represent northward-propagating Variscan thrust faults.

(Figure 10.5) (a) Section and (b) map of the shoreline geology at the Fremington Quay GCR site, north Devon. After Goldring (1970).

(Figure 10.6) Selected ammonoid, brachiopod and trilobite taxa of the Pilton Formation and their distribution in Goldring's (1955, 1970) local faunal zones.

(Figure 10.7) Lithostratigraphical subdivisions of the Codden Hill Group, north Devon (after Jackson, 1991). The extent of the Tawstock Formation at Park Gate Quarry is indicated by a vertical bar in the right hand column.

(Figure 10.8) Tight, asymmetric anticline developed in beds of the Bampton Limestone succession, Kersdown Quarry, east Devon. (Photo: J. Jones.)

(Figure 10.9) Simplified log of the upper part of the Bailey's Member (Bampton Limestone succession) and the transition into the Dowhills Beds (Crackington Formation), Kiln Cottage Quarry, east Devon. After Jackson (1985).

(Figure 10.10) Deeply weathered limestone bed within dark siliceous mudstones of the Bailey's Member (Bampton Limestone succession), Kiln Cottage Quarry, east Devon. Note coin for scale. (Photo: J. Jones.)

(Figure 10.11) Sequence of stacked, massive calcarenites and thin shales of the Upper Westleigh Limestone succession, West Whipcott Quarry, east Devon. (Photo: J. Jones.)

(Figure 10.12) Speculative reconstruction of the depositional environments associated with the development of a submarine rise in the southern part of the Culm Trough. After Isaac (1998).

(Figure 10.13) Thinly bedded Viséan cherts with fine shale partings, Viverdon Down Quarry, east Cornwall. (Photo: J. Jones.)

(Figure 10.14) Geological map of part of the Teign Valley showing the location of the Spara Bridge GCR site, south Devon. The site runs along the roadside close to the River Teign, west of Lower Ashton. Note that minor roads and alluvium have been omitted for clarity. After the geological map of the Newton Abbot district (Institute of Geological Sciences, 1976c).

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