Figures and plates

Figures

(Figure 1.1) The progressive appearance of adaptations for life on land in plants.

(Figure 1.2) The ranges of the main plant classes through the Palaeozoic.

(Figure 1.3) The potential processes involved in a plant fragment passing into the fossil record. From Thomas and Spicer (1987, figure 4.1).

(Figure 1.4) Summary of modes and nomenclature of plant fossil preservation. Each of the major modes of preservation is represented by a rectangle. The left-hand side of each rectangle shows a transverse-section through a hypothetical stem, and the right-hand side a close-up section showing cells. Based on Bateman in Cleal (1991, figure 2.2).

(Figure 1.5) The distribution of the GCR Palaeozoic palaeobotany sites in Britain. See (Table 1.1) for site names.

(Figure 3.1) The distribution of families of vascular plants in the Silurian. Based on data from Cleal (1993).

(Figure 3.2) The palaeogeography of the Silurian, showing the location of the major fossil floras of this age. 1 — Virginia; 2 — Maine; 3 — New York State; 4 — Tipperary; 5 — Wales; 6 — Bohemia; 7 — Podolia; 8 — Kazakhstan; 9 — Xinjiang; 10 — Victoria. Based on Scotese and McKerrow (1990).

(Figure 3.3) Reconstructions of two typical Silurian rhyniophytoid plants. (A) Cooksonia. (B) Steganotheca. From Thomas and Spicer (1987, figure 3.1; after D. Edwards).

(Figure 3.4) Outcrop of Wenlock to Přídolí strata in Wales and the Welsh Borderland, showing the locations of the Silurian GCR palaeobotany sites.

(Figure 3.5) Chronostratigraphical classification of the Silurian, and the positions of the GCR and other major palaeobotanical sites in this system.

(Figure 3.6) Pen-y-Glog Slate Quarry. Cleaved Pen-y-Glog Slates in the lower part of the quarry face, that have yielded Berwynia. These are overlain by turbidites of the Pen-y-Glog Grits, that contain Prototaxites. (Photo: C.J. Cleal.)

(Figure 3.7) Distribution of grit and shale facies in the Wenlock of North Wales, showing the position of Pen-y-Glog Slate Quarry. Based on Smith and George (1961, figure 20).

(Figure 3.8) Berwynia carruthersii Hicks. Enigmatic, possibly algal plant; Natural History Museum, London, specimen V.5887. Pen-y-Glog Slate Formation (Wenlock), Pen-y-Glog Slate Quarry. x 0.5. (Photo: Photographic Studio, Natural History Museum, London.)

(Figure 3.9) Geological map of the area around Llangammarch Wells. The quarry yielding the plant fossils lies just to the east of the village as marked on the map. Based on George (1970, figure 14).

(Figure 3.10) Powysia bassettii D. Edwards. Enigmatic branched alga; National Museum of Wales, specimen 72.39G la (holotype). Graptolitic shales (lower Neodiversograptus nilssoni Zone — Gorstian), Llangammarch Wells Quarry. x 1.6. (Photo: Photographic Studio, National Museum of Wales.)

(Figure 3.11) Inopinatella lawsonii Elliott. Non-calcified, possibly dasyclad alga; Natural History Museum, London, specimen V.31287. Aymestry Limestone Formation (upper Gorstian), Rockhall Quarry. x 2. (Photo: Photographic Studio, Natural History Museum, London.)

(Figure 3.12) Cooksonia pertoni Lang. Earliest exam-pies of rhyniophytoid land plants known from Great Britain; National Museum of Wales, specimen 79.17G3. Wilsonia Shales Formation (lower Ludlow), Cwm Craig Ddu Quarry. x 5. (Photo: Photographic Studio, National Museum of Wales.)

(Figure 3.13) Capel Horeb Quarry. The bedding plane on the left of the picture is of upper Ludlow beds of the Upper Roman Camp Formation. These are overlain by upper Ludlow or lower Přídolí beds of the Long Quarry Formation. (Photo: C.J. Cleal.)

(Figure 3.14) Close-up of part of the face of Capel Horeb Quarry, showing the relationship between the two plant-bearing intervals. (Photo: B.A. Thomas.)

(Figure 3.15) Steganotheca striata D. Edwards. One of the earliest known land plants; National Museum of Wales, specimen 69.64G32a (holotype). Upper Roman Camp Formation (upper Ludlow), Capel Horeb Quarry. x 1.5. (Photo: Photographic Studio, National Museum of Wales.)

(Figure 3.16) Cooksonia pertoni Lang. A fertile specimen from the type locality of this important early land plant; Natural History Museum, London, specimen V.58009. Rushall Formation (Přídolí), Perton Lane. x 3. (Photo: Photographic Studio, Natural History Museum, London.)

(Figure 3.17) Freshwater East. View across bay towards the Late Silurian plant-bearing exposures in the Freshwater East Formation. (Photo: C.J. Cleal.)

(Figure 3.18) The outcrop of the Milford Haven Group (Upper Silurian and Lower Devonian) in Pembrokeshire, showing position of Freshwater East and other localities that yield plant fossils. Based on Williams et al. (1982, figure 2).

(Figure 3.19) Lithostratigraphical divisions of the Přídolí and Lower Devonian of South Wales and the Welsh Borderland. From left to right, the four columns represent the sequences in (1) the Welsh Borderland, (2) central South Wales, (3) Dyfed north of the Ritec Fault, and (4) Dyfed south of the Ritec Fault. Based on Friend and Williams (1978, figure 31).

(Figure 3.20) Tortilicaulis transwalliensis D. Edwards. A fertile specimen of an early rhyniophytoid land plant; National Museum of Wales, specimen 77.6G2. Freshwater East Formation (lower Milford Haven Group — Pildoll), Freshwater East. x 4. (Photo: Photographic Studio, National Museum of Wales.)

(Figure 3.21) Psilophytites sp. The oldest known examples of a plant axis with spines; National Museum of Wales, specimen 77.6G56a. Freshwater East Formation (lower Milford Haven Group -Freshwater East. x 10. (Photo: Photographic Studio, National Museum of Wales.)

(Figure 4.1) The distribution of families of vascular plants in the Devonian. Based on data from Cleal (1993).

(Figure 4.2) The palaeogeography of the Devonian, showing the location of the major fossil floras of this age. 1 — North Argentina; 2 — West Virginia; 3 — Pennsylvania; 4 — Maine; 5 — Quebec; 6 — New York State; 7 — New Brunswick; 8 — Rhineland; 9 — Bohemia; 10 — Ireland; 11 — Wales and the Welsh Borderland; 12 — Scotland; 13 Belgium; 14 — Norway; 15 — Bear Island; 16 — Spitsbergen; 17 — Poland; 18 — Moldavia; 19 — Ukraine; 20 — Kuzbass; 21 — Kazakhstan; 22 — Yunnan; 23 — Victoria; 24 New South Wales; 25 — Queensland. Based on Scotese and McKerrow (1990).

(Figure 4.3) Reconstruction of Zosterophyllum. From Gensel and Andrews (1984).

(Figure 4.4) Reconstructions of Early Devonian lycopsids. (A) Asteroxylon. (B) Drepanophycus. From Thomas and Spicer (1987, figure 3.6; after Kräusel and Weyland, and Kidston and Lang).

(Figure 4.5) Reconstruction of the Devonian trimerophyte Psilophyton. From Thomas and Spicer (1987, figure 3.7).

(Figure 4.6) Reconstruction of the Devonian fern-like plant Pseudosporochnus. Based on Leclercq and Banks (1962).

(Figure 4.7) Partial reconstruction of the Devonian progymnosperm Protopteridium. Based on Meyen (1987, figure 38M).

(Figure 4.8) Distribution of Lower Devonian plant fossil-bearing beds in South Wales and the Welsh Borderland showing position of GCR sites. Based on Kenrick and Edwards (1988b, figure 25).

(Figure 4.9) Chronostratigraphical classification of the Devonian, and the positions of the GCR and other major palaeobotanical sites in this system.

(Figure 4.10) Turin Hill, Aberlemno Quarry. Strike section along flaggy deposits of the Gedinnian Dundee Formation. (Photo: C.J. Cleal.)

(Figure 4.11) Parka decipiens Fleming. Enigmatic, possible early land plant, consisting of a cutinized thallus covered with discoid sporangia; Natural History Museum, London, specimen V.24951. Dundee Formation (Gedinnian), Carmylie, Tayside. x 2. (Photo: Photographic Studio, Natural History Museum, London.)

(Figure 4.12) Zosterophyllum myretontanum Penhallow. Tangled mass of axes at the base of the plant that gave rise to the vertical shoots; Natural History Museum, London, specimen V.58041. Dundee Formation (Gedinnian), Balgavies Quarry, near Forfar, Tayside. x 0.5. (Photo: Photographic Studio, Natural History Museum, London.)

(Figure 4.13) Zosterophyllum myretonianum Penhallow. A fertile spike with sporangia arranged around the axis; Natural History Museum, London, specimen V.58047. Dundee Formation (Gedinnian), Clocksbriggs Quarry, Turin Hill. x 2. (Photo: Photographic Studio, Natural History Museum, London.)

(Figure 4.14) Zosterophyllum llanoveranum Croft and Lang. A group of fertile spikes probably originating from a single plant; Natural History Museum, London, specimen V.26516a. Brownstone Group (Siegenian), Llanover Quarry. x 1.5. (Photo: Photographic Studio, Natural History Museum, London.)

(Figure 4.15) Dawsonites arcuatus Halle. Terminal part of fertile truss; Natural History Museum, London, specimen V.26492. Brownstone Group (Siegenian), Llanover Quarry. x 2. (Photo: Photographic Studio, Natural History Museum, London.)

(Figure 4.16) Craig-y-Fro Quarry. Sedimentological log through the exposed part of the Senni Beds, and a view of the quarry face showing the main beds. Also shown are three of the main plant-bearing horizons. Partly based on Friend and Williams (1978, figure 40). (Photo: D. Edwards.)

(Figure 4.17) Uskiella spargens Shute and D. Edwards. Branched axes bearing terminal sporangia; Natural History Museum, London, specimen V.26461a. Senni Beds (Siegenian), Craig-y-Fro Quarry. x 1. (Photo: Photographic Studio, Natural History Museum, London.)

(Figure 4.18) Gosslingia breconensis Heard. Branched axes with some lateral sporangia; Natural History Museum, London, specimen V.26575. Senni Beds (Siegenian), Craig-y-Fro Quarry. x 0.5. (Photo: Photographic Studio, Natural History Museum, London.)

(Figure 4.19) Drepanophycus spinaeformis Göppert. Leafy shoot; Natural History Museum, London, specimen V.58185. Strathmore Group (Emsian), Ballanucater Farm. x 1. (Photo: Photographic Studio, Natural History Museum, London.)

(Figure 4.20) Auchensail Quarry. Emsian sandstones and shales of the Strathmore Group. Note the igneous dyke just to the left of centre of the quarry face as shown. (Photo: C.J. Cleal.)

(Figure 4.21) Sedimentology of the Strathmore Group (Emsian) at Auchensail Quarry. Based on Scott et al. (1976).

(Figure 4.22) Rhynie. The field just outside of the village, under which lies the Siegenian fossiliferous chert. (Photo: CJ. Cleal.)

(Figure 4.23) Geology of the Rhynie area. (A) Map showing the outline of the Rhynie outlier. (B, facing page) Map showing detail of that part of the outlier containing the fossiliferous chert (marked by a rectangle on A). Based on Trewin and Rice (1992, figure 1), who provide details of the boreholes marked on (B).

(Figure 4.24) Composite log through Rhynie Chert showing distribution of plant-bearing horizons. Based on Trewin (1989, p. 11).

(Figure 4.25) Rhynia gwynnevaughanii Kidston and Lang. Transverse section through stem showing central vascular strand; Natural History Museum, London, specimen SC.3132. Rhynie Chert (Siegenian), Rhynie. x 25. (Photo: Photographic Studio, Natural History Museum, London.)

(Figure 4.26) Rhynia gwynnevaughanii Kidston and Lang. Cut-away reconstruction of stem showing cylindrical protostele of xylem (x), phloem (p), and stomata on the stem surface (s). From Thomas and Spicer (1987, figure 3.2D; after Chaloner and Macdonald).

(Figure 4.27) (A) Rhynia gwynnevaughanii Kidston and Lang; reconstruction of aerial parts of plant including terminal sporangia. (B-C) Horneophyton lignieri (Kidston and Lang) Barghoorn and Darrah; (B) cut-away reconstruction of dichotomizing sporangia showing the central columella; (C) reconstruction of whole plant. From Thomas and Spicer (1987, figure 3.2C, E, and F; after Eggert and D.S. Edwards).

(Figure 4.28) Horneophyton lignieri (Kidston and Lang) Barghoorn and Darrah. Longitudinal sections through corm-like rhizome; Natural History Museum, London, specimen V.15648. Rhynie Chert (Siegenian), Rhynie. (left) x 8, (right) x 5. (Photos: Photographic Studio, Natural History Museum, London.)

(Figure 4.29) Asteroxylon niackei Kidston and Lang. Transverse section through dichotomizing stem, showing two vascular traces with the characteristic stellar cross-section; Natural History Museum, London, specimen V.15643. Rhynie Chert (Siegenian), Rhynie. x 6.66. (Photo: Photographic Studio, Natural History Museum, London.)

(Figure 4.30) Aglaophyton major (Kidston and Lang) D.S. Edwards. (A) cut-away reconstruction of sporangium. (B) reconstruction of whole plant. From Thomas and Spicer (1987, figure 3.2A-B; after D.S. Edwards).

(Figure 4.31) Putative Devonian gametophytes. (A) Lyonophyton rhyntensis Remy and Remy, based on Rhynie fossils. (B) Sciadophyton steinmannii Kräusel and Weyland, based on Lower Devonian fossils from Germany. From Thomas and Spicer (1987, figure 3.9; after W. Remy and R. Remy).

(Figure 4.32) Reconstruction of the Early Devonian vegetation at Rhynie. Based on Trewin (1989, p. 12).

(Figure 4.33) Bay of Skaill. Beds associated with the Sandwick Fish Bed, at the Eifelian–Givetian boundary. (Photo: C.J. Cleal.)

(Figure 4.34) Protopteridium thomsonti (Dawson) Kräusel and Weyland. Fertile spike of the oldest known progymnosperm; Natural History Museum, London, specimen V.9425. Sandwick Fish Bed (Eifelian–Givetian boundary), Bay of Skaill. x 2. (Photo: Photographic Studio, Natural History Museum, London.)

(Figure 4.35) Sloagar. Steeply-dipping Givetian lacustrine beds of the North Gavel Formation. Plant fossils occur in the shales in the middle of the picture. (Photo: C.J. Cleal.)

(Figure 4.36) Geological map of Fair Isle, showing position of Givetian palaeobotanical site at Sloagar. Based on Marshall and Allen (1982, text-figure 1).

(Figure 4.37) Stratigraphical section of the Middle Devonian of Fair Isle, showing the main plant fossil-bearing horizons. Based on Marshall and Allen (1982, text-figure 2).

(Figure 4.38) Devonian stratigraphy of North Devon, showing position of the Baggy Beds.

(Figure 4.39) Details of the stratigraphy of the Baggy Sphenopteris sp. should probably be retained.

(Figure 4.40) Sphenopteridium rigidum (Ludwig) Potonié. Fragments of early pteridosperm fronds; Natural History Museum, London, specimen V.3562. Baggy Formation (upper Famennian), Plaistow Quarry. x 2. (Photo: Photographic Studio, Natural History Museum, London.)

(Figure 5.1) The distribution of families of vascular plants in the Early Carboniferous. Based on data from Cleal (1993).

(Figure 5.2) The palaeogeography of the Early Carboniferous, showing the distribution of the major floristic zones (phytochoria). Based on Scotese and McKerrow (1990) and Cleal and Thomas in Cleal (1991).

(Figure 5.3) Chronostratigraphical and biostratigraphical classification of the Lower Carboniferous, and the positions of the GCR and other major palaeobotanical sites in this subsystem (adpressions).

(Figure 5.4) Chronostratigraphical classification of the Lower Carboniferous, and the positions of the GCR and other major palaeobotanical sites in this subsystem (petrifactions).

(Figure 5.5) Reconstruction of an Early Carboniferous herbaceous lycopsid, Oxroadia gracilis. Based on Bateman et al. (1992, figure 2D).

(Figure 5.6) Reconstruction of the Early Carboniferous lagenostomalean pteridosperm tree Stamnostoma, with insets showing details of foliage (A), pollen organs (B) and seeds (C). Based on Retallack and Dilcher (1988).

(Figure 5.7) Reconstruction of the Early Carboniferous lagenostomalean pteridosperm Diplopteridium. Based on Rowe (1988b, figure 35).

(Figure 5.8) Reconstruction of the Early Carboniferous calamopityalean pteridosperm Lyrasperma, with insets showing details of foliage (A) and seeds (B). Based on Retallack and Dilcher (1988).

(Figure 5.9) Distribution of Lower Carboniferous rocks in Scotland, showing location of GCR palaeobotany sites. 1 — Lennel Braes; 2 — Whiteadder; 3 — Weak Law; 4 — Loch Humphrey Burn; 5 — Glenarbuck; 6 — Laggan; 7 — Pettycur; 8 — Kingswood End; 9 — Oxroad Bay; 10 — Victoria Park; 11 — Glencartholm; 12 — Wardie Shore; 13 — Kingwater.

(Figure 5.10) Edrom, Whiteadder River. Shales and cemented mudstones of the upper Tournaisian Cementstone Group. The main plant bed is in the bed of the river. (Photo: CJ. Cleal.)

(Figure 5.11) Location map for the Whiteadder GCR palaeobotany site. Based on Scott et al. (1984, figure 14).

(Figure 5.12) Sections through Early Carboniferous seeds from the Whiteadder. (A) Genomosperma kidstonti x 5. (B) G. latens x 5. (C) Stamnostoma buttonense x 20. (D) Hydrasperma tenuis x 20. Based on Long (1959b, 1960a, 1961b).

(Figure 5.13) Sections through Early Carboniferous seeds from the Whiteadder (Eospermaceae). (A) Eosperma edromense. (B) Deltasperma fouldenense. (C) Eccroustosperma langtonense. (D) Camptospenna berniciense. All x 18. Based on Long (1961a, b, 1966).

(Figure 5.14) Sections through Early Carboniferous seeds from the Whiteadder (Calamopityales). (A) Lyrasperma scotica x 4.5. (B) Eurystoma trigona x 13.5. (C) E. angulare x 9. (D) Dolichosperma sexangualtum x 4.5. Based on Long (1960b, 1961b, 1969).

(Figure 5.15) Section through the Early Carboniferous seeds from the Whiteadder, Mitrospermum x 4.5. Based on Long (1977c).

(Figure 5.16) Oxroad Bay. View south across the foreshore, with Dinantian lacustrine sediments in the foreground overlain by reworked volcanigenics exposed in the cliffs. Two of the four horizons yielding anatomically-preserved plants are shown: (A) was discovered by W.T. Gordon in 1930, (C) by R.M. Bateman in 1984. Hammer is 0.3 metres long. (Photo: R.M. Bateman.)

(Figure 5.17) Geological map of the Tantallon area of East Lothian, showing location of palaeobotany sites including Oxroad Bay. Based on Bateman and Scott (1990, figure 2).

(Figure 5.18) Devonian and Lower Carboniferous stratigraphy in the Lothian Region, showing position of the Oxroad Bay exposures. Based on Bateman and Scott (1990, figure 1).

(Figure 5.19) Petrified plants from North Berwick Member of the Garlcton Hills Volcanic Formation (Courceyan), Oxroad Bay. (A) Tetrastichia bupatides Gordon. Transverse section of stem of shrubby pteridosperm, showing the characteristic four-lobed stele emitting paired leaf traces; Natural History Museum, London, Gordon Collection (holotype). x 8.4. (B) Oxroadia gracilis Alvin. Transverse section of a branch of the pseudoherbaceous rhizomorphic lycopsid, showing the coronate stele emitting leaf traces through the inner cortex; Bateman Collection, specimen OBD(?2.15)038bT/2. x 118. (C) Pullaritheca longii Rothwell and Wight cupule with Hydrasperma tenuis Long ovules attached to the placental margin. Rare example of a developmental anomaly in a fossil plant, where the abortive ovule to the right is normal, whereas the ovule to the left has a deformed, proliferated and nonfunctional pollen chamber (arrowed); Long Collection, Hancock Museum, Newcastle upon Tyne, specimen HM 11718. x 38. (D) Protocalamostacbys farringtonii Bateman. Sporangiophore axis (left centre) emitting two of four sporangia, the upper being a megasporangium, the lower a microsporangium; Bateman Collection, specimen OBC084gB/5. x 71. (Photo A: G.W. Rothwell; photos B-D: R.M. Bateman.)

(Figure 5.20) Fusainized plants from North Berwick Member of the Garleton Hills Volcanic Formation (Courceyan), Oxroad Bay. (A) Oxroadia gracilis Alvin. Transverse section through microphyll leaf of this rhizomorphic lycopsid, showing terete vascular strand (arrowed) surrounded by mesophyll; highlighted abaxial surface shows stomata restricted to two shallow furrows (left, centre right); Bateman Collection, specimen OBD(2.17)176:CP21. x 108. (B) Setispora pannosa (Alvin) Spinner. Elaborately ornamented megaspore of the pseudoherbaceous lycopsid Oxroadia conferta Bateman; Natural History Museum, London, specimen V.52016e. x 37. (C) Oxroadia gracilis Alvin. Detail of stomata of leaf, showing paired sunken guard cells surrounded by putative subsidiary cells; Bateman Collection, specimen OBD(2.17)176:CP21. x 1634. (D) Deltasperma fouldenense Long. Platyspermic pteridosperm ovule with one half of the integument (i) removed to reveal the nucellus (n); at the bottom of the photograph is a typical apical pollen chamber; a cylindrical wall (w) surrounds the central column (c) and salpinx (s), containing a single prepollen grain (arrowed); Bateman Collection, specimen OBD(2.26)190:CP17. x 52. (Photos A, C and D: R.M. Bateman. Photo B: C.H. Shute, Natural History Museum, London.)

(Figure 5.21) Map of that part of Kingwater where in situ tree stumps are preserved in the Lower Carboniferous. Based on Day (1970, figure 20).

(Figure 5.22) Maps of the Pettycur and Kingswood End GCR palaeobotany sites. The upper illustration is a locality map. The lower illustration shows the distribution of the main lithologies. Based on Rex and Scott (1987, figure 2).

(Figure 5.23) Generalized stratigraphical section at Pettycur. Based on Scott et al. (1984, figure 9).

(Figure 5.24) Paralycopodites brevifolius (Williamson) DiMichele. Transverse section through lycopsid stem; Natural History Museum, London, specimen WC.502. Pettycur Limestone (Asbian), Pettycur. x 4. (Photo: Photographic Studio, Natural History Museum, London.)

(Figure 5.25) Cheirostrobus pettycurensis Scott. Longitudinal section through complex equisetopsid cone showing distribution of sporangia; Natural History Museum, London, SC.3661. Pettycur Limestone (Asbian), Pettycur. x 2. (Photo: Photographic Studio, Natural History Museum, London.)

(Figure 5.26) Metaclepsydropsis duplex (Williamson) Bertrand. Transverse section through fern rachis; Natural History Museum, London, specimen WC.223. Pettycur Limestone (Asbian), Pettycur. x 4. (Photo: Photographic Studio, Natural History Museum, London.)

(Figure 5.27) Diplolabis roemeri (Solms-Laubach) Bertrand. Transverse section through fern rachis; Natural History Museum, London, specimen GC.789. Pettycur Limestone (Asbian), Pettycur. x 4. (Photo: Photographic Studio, Natural History Museum, London.)

(Figure 5.28) Stratigraphical section at Kingswood End, showing distribution of plant fossils. Based on Rex and Scott (1987, figure 4).

(Figure 5.29) Lepidophloios wuenschianus (Williamson) Walton. Transverse section through lycopsid stem; Natural History Museum, London, specimen WC.456a. Visean ash deposits, Laggan. x 2. (Photo: Photographic Studio, Natural History Museum, London.)

(Figure 5.30) Loch Humphrey Burn. Photograph taken during NCC-funded re-excavation of the site in 1985. The coarse dashed lines delimit the plant-rich volcanigenic sediments of Unit 4 (see (Table 5.1)). The finer dashed lines mark the bases of Bed 17 (the source of Walton's petrified nodules) and Bed 20 (rich in compressions, notably Pothocites cones). The overlying Unit 5 includes thin coals and represents a clastic swamp containing giant lycopsids; this correlates with the nearby Glenarbuck site. (Photo: R.M. Bateman.)

(Figure 5.31) Geological map of area south of Loch Humphrey in the Kilpatrick Hills, showing positions of Loch Humphrey Burn (1) and Glenarbuck (2) sites. Based on Scott et al. (1984, figure 5).

(Figure 5.32) Sedimentological log at Loch Humphrey Burn. Based on Scott et al (1984, figure 8).

(Figure 5.33) Sedimentological log for Glenarbuck. Based on Scott et al. (1984, figure 6).

(Figure 5.34) Puddlebrook. Asbian fluvial deposits of the Drybrook Sandstone, prior to the 1982 excavations at the site. (Photo: C.J. Cleal.)

(Figure 5.35) Geological map of the northern part of the Forest of Dean, showing the location of Puddlebrook Quarry. Based on Sullivan (1964, text-figure 1).

(Figure 5.36) Eskdalia variabilis (Lele and Walton) Rowe. Leafy lycopsid shoots bearing terminal fructifications; Natural History Museum, London, specimen V.62432a. Drybrook Sandstone (Asbian), Puddlebrook Quarry. x 1. (Photo: Photographic Studio, Natural History Museum, London.)

(Figure 5.37) Diplopteridium holdenii Lele and Walton. Pteridosperm frond with fructifications; Natural History Museum, London, specimen V.62331a. Drybrook Sandstone (Asbian), Puddlebrook Quarry. x 0.5. (Photo: Photographic Studio, Natural History Museum, London.)

(Figure 5.38) Lower Carboniferous geology of the area south of Prestatyn, showing the position of the quarries at Moel Hiraddug and Teilia. Based on Somerville et at (1989, figure 1).

(Figure 5.39) Clwydia decussata Lacey. Lower Carboniferous lycopsid leafy shoot; National Museum of Wales, specimen 84.27G125. Foel Formation (Chadian), Moel Hiraddug. x 2. (Photo: Photographic Studio, National Museum of Wales.)

(Figure 5.40) Archaeosigillaria stobbsii Lacey. Lower Carboniferous lycopsid leafy shoots; Natural History Museum, London, specimen V.16012. Foel Formation (Chadian), Moel Hiraddug. x 1. (Photo: Photographic Studio, Natural History Museum, London.)

(Figure 5.41) Lepidodendron sp. Lower Carboniferous lycopsid stem; National Museum of Wales, specimen 84.27G122. Foel Formation (Chadian), Moel Hiraddug. x 1. (Photo: Photographic Studio, National Museum of Wales.)

(Figure 5.42) Adiantites machanekii Stur. Almost complete pteridosperm frond; Natural History Museum, specimen V.2755. Gronant Group (Brigantian), Teilia Quarry. x 0.75. (Photo: Photographic Studio, Natural History Museum, London.)

(Figure 5.43) Wardie Shore. Foreshore exposures of the upper Holkerian Wardie Shales Formation. (Photo: C.J. Cleal.)

(Figure 5.44) Map showing the main lithologies exposed at Wardie Shore. Based on McAdam and Clarkson (1986, Map 7).

(Figure 5.45) Pothocites grantoni Paterson. Cone of archaeocalamitid equisetopsid; Natural History Museum, London, specimen V.195. Glencartholm Volcanic Group (Holkerian–Asbian), Glencartholm. x 1. (Photo: Photographic Studio, Natural History Museum, London.)

(Figure 5.46) Sphenopteridium pachyrrachis (Göppert) Schimper. Almost complete pteridosperm frond; Natural History Museum, London, specimen V.186. Glencartholm Volcanic Group (Holkerian–Asbian), Glencartholm. x 1. (Photo: Photographic Studio, Natural History Museum, London.)

(Figure 5.47) Victoria Park. In situ fossilized tree stumps in the Limestone Coal Group (lower Pendleian). (Photo: B.A. Thomas.)

(Figure 5.48) Plan of the Fossil Grove at Victoria Park, showing distribution of in situ lycopsid stumps. Based on MacGregor and Walton (1972, figure 1).

(Figure 5.49) Generalized section through the Carboniferous of the Glasgow area, showing the position of the Limestone Coal Group. Based on MacGregor and Walton (1972, figure 8).

(Figure 6.1) The palaeogeography of the Late Carboniferous, showing the distribution of the major floristic zones (phytochoria). Based on Scotese and McKerrow (1990) and Cleal and Thomas in Cleal (1991).

(Figure 6.2) The distribution of the principal families of vascular plants in the Late Carboniferous. Based on data from Cleal (1993).

(Figure 6.3) Diorama of a Late Carboniferous (Coal Measures) tropical swamp forest. Taken from the 'Evolution of Wales' exhibition, National Museum of Wales, Cardiff.

(Figure 6.4) Reconstruction of a Late Carboniferous giant lycopsid, Lepidodendron. From Thomas and Spicer (1987, figure 7.5).

(Figure 6.5) Reconstruction of a Late Carboniferous giant equisetopsid Calamites. From Thomas and Spicer (1987, figure 7.11; after Hirmer).

(Figure 6.6) Reconstruction of a Late Carboniferous Sphenophyllum (Equisetopsida). From Thomas and Spicer (1987, figure 7.10; after Battenburg).

(Figure 6.7) Reconstruction of a Late Carboniferous marattialean tree-fern Psaronius. From Thomas and Spicer (1987, figure 6.6; after Morgan).

(Figure 6.8) Reconstruction of a Late Carboniferous trigonocarpalean pteridosperm, Alethopteris. From Thomas and Spicer (1987, figure 10.2; after Stewart and Delevoryas).

(Figure 6.9) Reconstruction of a Late Carboniferous callistophyte liana. From Thomas and Spicer (1987, figure 10.6; after Rothwell).

(Figure 6.10) Reconstruction of Late Carboniferous cordaitaleans: (A) an arborescent form found in the palaeoequatorial swamp-forests; (B) a smaller form. From Thomas and Spicer (1987, figure 11.1; after D.H. Scott, and Rothwell and Warner).

(Figure 6.11) Chronostratigraphical and biostratigraphical classification of the Upper Carboniferous, and the positions of the GCR palaeobotany sites.

(Figure 6.12) Stratigraphical section at Nant Llech, showing position of plant beds. Based on Dix (1933).

(Figure 6.13) Renaultia crepinii (Stur) Kidston. Part of frond from a small herbaceous fern; Natural History Museum, London, specimen V.23353. Lower Productive Coal Formation (Langsettian), Nant Llech. x 2. (Photo: Photographic Studio, Natural History Museum, London.)

(Figure 6.14) Neuralethopteris jongmansii Laveine. Part of trigonocarpalean frond; Natural History Museum, London, specimen V.23359. Lower Productive Coal Formation (Langsettian), Nant Llech. x 1. (Photo: Photographic Studio, Natural History Museum, London.)

(Figure 6.15) Wadsley Fossil Forest. In situ fossilized tree stumps preserved in the lower Langsettian Middle Rock Formation. (Photo: G. Boon, Sheffield City Museum.)

(Figure 6.16) Locality maps for Cattybrook Claypit. Based on Cleal and Thomas (1988, figure 1).

(Figure 6.17) Stratigraphical section through part of the lower Productive Coal Formation (upper Langsettian) at Cattybrook Claypit. Based on Cleal and Thomas (1988, figure 2).

(Figure 6.18) Calamites carinatus Sternberg and Calamostachys paniculata Weiss. Stem and cones of giant equisetopsids; National Museum of Wales, specimen 86.101G54. Productive Coal Formation (Langsettian), Cattybrook Claypit. x 1. (Photo: Photographic Studio, National Museum of Wales.)

(Figure 6.19) Karinopteris actua (Brongniart) Boersma. Pteridosperm frond; National Museum of Wales, specimen 86.101G25. Productive Coal Formation (Langsettian), Cattybrook Claypit. x 0.5. (Photo: Photographic Studio, National Museum of Wales.)

(Figure 6.20) Nostell Priory Brickpit. Working quarry, as seen in 1985. The beds are associated with the lower Bolsovian Shafton Marine Band. (Photo: C.J. Cleal.)

(Figure 6.21) Locality map for Llanbradach Quarry.

(Figure 6.22) Geological map showing the area near Jockie's Syke. Based on Peach and Horne (1903, plate 1)

(Figure 6.23) Stratigraphical succession in the Canonbie Coalfield. Based on Peach and Horne (1903, plate 4).

(Figure 7.1) The distribution of the principal families of vascular plants in the Permian and Triassic. Based on data from Cleal (1993).

(Figure 7.2) The palaeogeography of the Permian, showing the distribution of the major floristic zones (phytochoria). Based on Scotese and McKerrow (1990) and Cleal and Thomas in Cleal (1991).

(Figure 7.3) Reconstruction of Early Permian conifer shoot, Walchia. Based on Florin (1951).

(Figure 7.4) Reconstruction of Early Permian conifer cones. Based on Florin (1951).

(Figure 7.5) Main areas of Late Permian sedimentation in north-west Europe, showing principal palaeobotanical sites including the two GCR sites (Kimberley and Middridge). Based on Schweitzer (1986, figure 1).

(Figure 7.6) Chronostratigraphical classification of the Permian and the positions of the GCR palaeobotany sites.

(Figure 7.7) Location map for Stairhill. Based on Wagner (1983).

(Figure 7.8) Ullmannia frumentaria (Brongniart) Göppert. Conifer shoot; Natural History Museum, London, specimen V.35130. Marl Slate (Upper Permian), Middridge Quarry. x 0.5. (Photo: Photographic Studio, Natural History Museum, London.)

(Figure 7.9) Samaropsis triangularis (Geinitz) Seward. Conifer seed; Natural History Museum, London, V.6209. Marl Slate (Upper Permian), Kimberley Railway Cutting. x 3. (Photo: Photographic Studio, Natural History Museum, London.)

(Figure 7.10) Pseudovoltzia liebeana (Geinitz) Florin. Cone scale from a conifer; Natural History Museum, London, specimen V.35128. Marl Slate (Upper Permian), Kimberley Railway Cutting. x 3. (Photo: Photographic Studio, Natural History Museum, London.)

Tables

(Table 1.1) The Palaeozoic palaeobotany GCR sites

(Table 5.1) Lithostratigraphy of Loch Humphrey Burn (R.M. Bateman, unpublished)

References